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<p>ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS STRUCTURES Ivan Margolius WILEY-ACADEMY</p><p>poole ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES THE BOURNEMOUTH & POOLE COLLEGE 250074178 Y</p><p>For Theo and Jan, and their grandfather Rudolf whom they never knew. 'One has to make the supports sing.' ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES Auguste Perret Ivan Margolius 'Let the material be true to itself ... brick should appear as brick, wood as wood, iron as iron, each A book that celebrates well-known designers Paxton, Torroja, according to its own statical laws.' Nervi, Saarinen, Buckminster Fuller, Le Corbusier, Niemeyer, Gotfried Semper Arup, Hunt and Foster, and the lesser-known such as Polivka, Glickman, Kornacker, Cardozo, Zetlin and Strasky. 'Works of art have a life of their own; they are not accessible to everyone. If they are to have meaning for us we must approach them on their own Ludwig Mies van der Rohe 'One of the fundamental instincts of the human race is to defeat gravity, to construct without gravity.' Marcel Breuer 'The structure of the long span is presented in its nature and its elements. The short span presents itself in its particular nature. Their play when both relate introduces the building art of architecture.' Louis I. Kahn 'A good structural organism worked out passion- ately in detail and in general appearance is essential to good architecture.' Pier Luigi Nervi 'What would be the best bridge? Well, the one which could be reduced to a thread, a line, without anything left which fulfilled strictly its function of uniting two separated distances.' Pablo Picasso 'I think of dreams and poetry.' Oscar Niemeyer WILEY-ACADEMY</p><p>THE COLLEGE 2500741784 CONTENTS ILLUSTRATIONS CREDITS Cover photo: Lord's Media London, designed by Future Systems Publishing New York pages 60-61, from 6 Introduction 45 Eero Saarinen, Fred N. Severud, 70 Piano & Rogers, Ove Arup & Partners, (architects) and Ove Arup & Partners Photo Richard Wachsmann, Turning Point of Building, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, Hannskarl Bandel, Jefferson Centre National d'Art et de Culture New York pages 64 (top) & courtesy of Forrest page 20 A Celebration of Architects-Engineers Memorial Arch 64 (bottom), courtesy of Eugene Santa City of Utica Engineering Georges Pompidou Attempts have been made to locate the sources of all to Utica: page 66 (below right), courtesy of 21 Medieval Cathedral Architects 46 Richard Buckminster Fuller, Geodesic 71 Joerg Schlaich, Dry Cooling Tower, obtain full reproduction rights, but in the very few in which this Kawaguchi and Minar Sinan Findikh, page 22 Filippo Brunelleschi and the dome of and Tensegrity Domes Schmehausen Nuclear Power Plant process has failed to find the copyright holder, apologies are Eric de / RIBA Library Photographs pages 68 & Santa Maria del Fiore 49 Philip Powell, Hidalgo Moya, Felix J. 75 Jiri Strasky, Stress-Ribbon Bridges Please note that in captions, as in titles of project engineers courtesy of Owings & page 70, Ove Arup & Part ners page Wilfried courtesy of Axel Menges 23 Thomas Telford, The Menai Bridge appear in italics Samuely, The Skylon 79 Richard Rogers and Partners, Pages 7 & from Otto Bedrich Boucek, Life Under pages 72 & 74, courtesy of Bergermann Partners and 24 Decimus Burton, Richard Turner, The 50 Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, Frank J. Anthony Hunt Associates, Inmos the Prague page from W. Bentley and W. Axel GmbH; page 73, Klaus Frahm, K courtesy Palm House Kornacker, Convention Hall Microchip Facility J. Humphreys, Snow Crystals, New York page of Axel Menges pages 75, 76, 77 & courtesy of Jin 26 Joseph Paxton, Charles Fox (Fox 53 Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, Joaquim 80 Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners, courtesy of London: pages 16, 83 & courtesy of Foster pages 79, 81 & Anthony Hunt Associates, page and Partners, London; page 20, from Burian and Antonin Hartmann, 82, courtesy of Eva London; page 83 (top Henderson & Co), Crystal Palace Cardozo, Brasilia Anthony Hunt Associates, photographs Karel Neubert, Prague London, page Ben Johnson, Ove Arup & Partners pages 83 (top right) 28 Antonio Gaudi, Church of the Sagrada 55 Le Corbusier, Yannis Xenakis, H.C. International Terminal 22, Ralph RIBA Library Photographs Collection: pages 23, & 84 (top), courtesy of Foster & page 84 (bottom), Ken Familia Duyster, C.G.J. Vreedenburgh, Philips 82 Eva Jiricna, Matthew Wells, Tim 53, 54, 66 (top right and bottom) courtesy of Foster & pages 85 & Keith 30 William Le Baron John Pavilion Macfarlane, Glass Staircases & 91 (top), courtesy of RIBA Library Photographs page page Anna Broomfield, Ove Arup & Partners page e Joe RIBA Library Photographs page courtesy of 88, Marcus Robinson, courtesy of Lifschutz page Wellborn Root, Chicago Skyscrapers 56 Jorn Utzon, Ove Arup & Partners, 83 Foster Associates, Ove Arup & Institut d'Art Barcelona; pages 31 & 44, courtesy of James courtesy of Wilkinson Eyre, page 92 31 Alexandre Gustave Eiffel, Maurice Opera House Partners, MC-2 Julio Martinez Zurich; page courtesy of Hunterian (top), courtesy of Bilfinger Berger page 92 from The Japan Koechlin, Emile Nougier, Stephen 58 Guillermo Rosell, Manuel Larrosa, Calzon, Torre de Museum & Art University of page from Maurice Architect Spring 1999 (page 117, page 93 Donald The Twentieth Che Beiser, Stuttgart page 36. courtesy of The Institution of Civil Engineers, page 93 Sauvestre, Frederic Auguste Felix Candela, Chapel 85 Santiago Calatrava, Buro Tatlin ROA, Moscow and DACS, London 2002: page 37 courtesy of Heinz page courtesy of Christian page Bartholdi, The Eiffel Tower 60 Konrad Wachsmann, Space Structure Dennis Sharp, Trinity Bridge (top), courtesy of Archives Departementales de & courtesy of Hisao Suzuki and Mamoru Kawaguchi 32 Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Concert 62 Bertrand Goldberg, Frank J. 86 Future Systems, Ove Arup & Partners, Nancy, Jean Prouvé Paris and DACS, London page 37 Hall Project Kornacker, Bertold E. Weinberg, Fred Lord's Media Centre courtesy of Centre Paris, Jean First published in Great Britain in 2002 by Paris and London 2002; page 38, from Eduardo Torroja, The WILEY-ACADEMY 33 Auguste Perret and reinforced concrete N. Severud, Hannskarl Bandel, 88 Lifschutz Davidson, Matthew Wells Structures of Eduardo F W. Dudge, New York page G. 34 Eugene Freyssinet, Airship Hangars Marina City (Techniker), Pedestrian Bridge A division of Kidder Smith from John Peter, Masters of Modern JOHN WILEY & SONS 36 Vladimir Tatlin, Monument to the 64 Gerhon & Seltzer, Lev Zetlin, Memorial 89 David Marks, Julia Barfield, Babtie New York page 41 (top), James courtesy of the Baffins Lane Third International Auditorium Allott & Lomax, Hollandia, British Frank Llayd Wright Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, Scotts Chichester Arizona; page 41 courtesy of Edgar page 37 Albert Laprade, Leon Bazin, Jean 66 Kenzo Tange, Yoshikatsu Tsuboi, Airways London Eye West Sussex P019 1UD courtesy of the Frank Wright Frank Four- Prouvé, Etablissements Mamoru Kawaguchi, Olympic 90 Wilkinson Eyre, Whitby, Bird & dation, Scottsdale, page 43, courtesy of University at Buffalo ISBN: 0-471-49825-4 Garage Marbeuf, Glass façade Swimming Pool Arena and Olympic Partners, Challenge of Materials Archives and Ann Marie Frank Lloyd Wright New York Copyright 2002 John Wiley & Sons and DACS, London pages 45, 46, 69 & 91 38 Carlos Arniches, Martin Dominguez, Boxing and Basketball Arena Footbridge All rights reserved. Michael Hodges RIBA Library Photographs page Eduardo Torroja Miret, Zarzuela 67 Cedric Price, Frank Newby, Anthony 91 And there were others No part of this publication may he stored in a retrieval Amanda Bates; page courtesy of The Mies der Rohe Archive, The system, or in any form or by any means, electronic, mechani- Hippodrome Armstrong-Jones (Lord Snowdon), Museum of Modern Art. New York, Gift of Fujikawa Conterato, Lohan & photocopying recording scanning or otherwise, except under the 40 Pier Luigi Nervi, Aircraft Hangars Zoo Aviary 93 Inspiration for the Future Associates, The of Modern New page 51. courtesy terms of the Copyright Designs and Patents Act 1988 under the terms of RIBA Library Photographs page and 41 Frank Lloyd Wright, Mendel Glickman, 68 Myron Goldsmith, Alfred Picardi, of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing 90 Tottenham tesy of Dennis page 52 rights, courtesy of Dennis S.C. Johnson & Son Administration Court Road, London, UK, without the permission in writing of Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Solar 98 Notes Mannina, Ludwig Mies van der Rohe e Bonn and the Building; and Frank Lloyd Wright, Telescope 100 Bibliography London page 55, courtesy of RIBA Library Photographs Pereira Jaroslav J. Polivka, Laboratory Tower 69 Rolf Gutbrod, Frei Otto, Cable Net 102 Index Paris and DACS, London pages 58, from Colin Faber, Candela The Shell Printed and bound in the UK by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, 44 Robert Maillart, Cement Hall Roof, German Exhibition Pavilion</p><p>6 ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 7 INTRODUCTION Introduction STRUCTURE IS EVERYWHERE an aircraft or a microchip, created without harmful German designer and teacher Otl Aicher 'As far as could said the upper-deck waste, noise and fumes while consuming its own thought that the relationship between art and planking, and that was four inches thick, pollutants. Trees are pre-stressed to be able to technology was Technology has a single iron near me was pushing or pulling in bend and straighten continuously without sustaining technical beauty of its own. But the reverse is opposite directions. Now, what's the sense of Their outer wood fibres are in tension not true: art does not have a technical dimension. that? My friends, let us all pull together.' Pull and their cores are in compression. While the tree Italian engineer Pier Luigi Nervi insisted that any way you roared the funnel, 'so long is bending the compressive stress at the concave architecture was the synthesis of technology and as you don't try your experiments on me. need side is compensated for by the internal tensile art. In Gothic cathedrals the fusion of technology fourteen wire ropes, all pulling in different stress. The effective bending strength is approxi- and aesthetics was so complete that one could directions, to hold me steady. Isn't that so?' mately doubled. Can nature teach us to emulate not separate the construction aspect from the 'We must all pull the decks repeated. the same processes creating the same flexible architectural Designing structures is a 'Pull good,' said the stringers; behaviour in man-made materials? responsible profession, is essentially `then stop pushing sideways when you get wet. with nature, we humans are still in our infancy a social art with duties to clients and to Be content to run gracefully fore and aft, and when it comes to mastering the combination of society at as well as a rewarding one as curve in at the ends as we cried structural actions. A single orchid flower probably Happold points out: history there the iron pillars of the deep, dark hold. ever contains more variety and of structural has been a succession of turning points, achieve- heard of curves? Stand up straight; be a actions than the most remarkable building." ments by engineers which represent a new perfectly round column, and carry tons of good Since medieval times architects and builders conception of nature. These turning points reveal solid weight - like that! There!' A big sea have devised techniques, methods and materials why engineering can be intensely satisfying, for smashed on the deck above, and the pillars to erect buildings to synthesise structure with it is, at its best, an art grounded in social respon- stiffened themselves to the architecture and to achieve innovative solutions, sibility." A few months after the completion of An integral part of architectural design is the the 59-storey Citicorp Center (1972-1977, Hugh Everything that exists has structure. Nature consideration of space and its envelope, the foun- Stubbins & Associates, LeMessurier Associates) provides structure for the elements it creates and dations, slabs, columns and roof. Architecture in New York, engineer William LeMessurier evolves; everything has to be adequate and appro- cannot exist without engineering, and by integrating discovered that his specially designed wind braces priate for its purpose to survive and thrive. An egg these two essential ingredients a more successful were bolted to the main frame, rather than welded Above left:Variety of needs its monocoque shell properties to contain result can be achieved. It is a combination of art, as originally intended, and had to have these diatoms from Tertiary and sustain the weight of its yolk and egg white, aesthetic values, technology, materials and their altered quickly before the arrival of the high wind bear the weight of the mother hen sitting on it and behaviour, application and assembly that defines season. His decisive and courageous action only Left: Nature's perfect be strong and defensible from the outside. An egg the art of building. raised his engineering reputation. have a cross section of a lime-tree branch Nature cannot be broken by squeezing it along its long For British engineer Edmund Happold technology social obligation. In return for getting a license gives examples of struc- axis, but is weak enough to allow the chick to was with the development of useful and being regarded with respect, you're supposed tures created with mini- energy consumption break out from the inside. objects or processes that change our lives. It does to be self-sacrificing and look beyond the interests and maximum Trees are another structural miracle. They this in response to people's aspirations or is of yourself and your client to society as a mental collect solar energy using molecular devices, the restrained by people's fears; in this it relates to photosynthetic reaction centres of chloroplasts, the arts. What it does must obey the laws of NATURE AS INSPIRATION and use that energy to drive molecular machines, nature, which is why it uses science to examine Structure must follow, satisfy and respect the laws which process carbon dioxide and water into the behaviour. Technology is the making of things while of nature. Any further development in the new oxygen and molecular building blocks that form science is the So the roots of engineering engineering of buildings is governed by these the whole plant. A tree is more sophisticated than are in nature." There is an inherent simplicity in nature, and if</p><p>8 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 9 INTRODUCTION that is translated into structural design it is according to the requirements of minimum energy. Engineer August Komendant explained his inevitable that an elegant construction is created. In recent years man has been trying to reach successful working relationship with architect Louis Nature teaches us lessons in structural design. beyond his natural, earth-bound environment, Kahn and their mutual appreciation: 'I was always It points the way by its rules of minimum component moving into space governed by different laws than an insider from the beginning of each project to the types, which have the ability to be combined into a the gravity laws we are used to. Man is stepping finished building Kahn's knowledge of advanced vast diversity of structural forms. Any new ideas in outside nature, constructing another world over it, engineering was inadequate to cope with his archi- structural design can be studied in nature. An one of his own imagination, for the present unrelated tectural ideas We worked together like amazing example of this capacity is a snowflake. to 'One day Eero Saarinen was accompanied by Louis It has a constant symmetrical hexagonal form, Kahn, they were good friends. Eero wanted to tease enabling an unlimited range of diversity of patterns ARCHITECTS AND ENGINEERS Louis and asked, "Lou, do you consider this building which are never repeated. Every snowflake is The difference between the architect and the [Medical Research Laboratory, Philadelphia, unique and, at the same time, has a high degree of engineer is that the architect's role is a creative, Pennsylvania, (1957-1961)] an architectural or differentiation within its own pattern. The emotional, personal response to the client, brief, a structural success?" Kahn was irritated and snowflake is the result of a least-energy interaction site and situation, whereas the engineer's contribu- answered, "Your question is a valid one. The of its minimum inventory with the environmental tion is inventive. 'The architect, like the artist, is elements and their shapes, like the structure they conditions of temperature, humidity, wind velocity motivated by personal considerations whereas the form, evolve so logically from the architectural and atmospheric Architect Karel Honzik engineer is essentially seeking to transform the requirements that structure and building cannot be required by an architect for the ideal engineer, Above: Architect Louis observed that 'Living and dead matter seems to problem into one where the essential properties of separated, the one evolves the other! Engineer Owen Williams was sceptical about the Kahn, August Medical follow a single impulse, displacing and reorganising structure, material or some other impersonal Kahn showed his appreciation for his engineer in understanding of the two professions when he Research itself, or growing, with the object of attaining equi- element are being expressed. This distinction two letters. The first said: 'To August whose genius wrote that he did not believe that an architect as librium, under the direct influence of internal and between creation and invention is the key to under- has made my buildings his buildings and are the an architect could collaborate with an engineer as external forces. Nature seeks that ideal state of standing the difference between the engineer and very ones that have wonder about them.' The other an engineer, because they represent the opposition equilibrium.' Nature creates forms and structures the architect, and how they can both work on the praised Komendant's abilities: intuitive sense of two philosophical ideas. Engineer Frank Newby same project but contribute in different ways', of the inter-relation of natural forces sets aside the was more humble in his opinion: as a Right: without competing with each handbook when he thinks about structure, looking structural technician combined with a facility to Infinitely Engineers use an abstract language and the toward "order" the play of the laws in Nature. create structural form does not imply capacity to notation of mathematics to develop their designs, His designs therefore encourage and support premises. create architecture. On the other hand none too whereas architects employ visual language and The architect who works with him is not led away many architects have the control of technical skills graphic notation. For architect James Gowan from the central idea. His advice and directions necessary for design in the present increasingly architecture was concerned with art, and engineering lead toward the confirmation of validities. His industrialised building climate - the architect's with utility. one activity invades the territory command of mathematics gives him freedom. His tools are his of the other, it does at considerable risk." intuitive sense, fed by knowledge of the nature of German cable structures specialist Joerg The other dimension to consider is that is structures gives him decision. His great desire to Schlaich requires the architect to be open minded; often concerned with deceit and one presumes design and build gives him the enthusiasm to tackle he or she must be open to a contribution from the that mathematics is not. Engineering has to be his work alone or with little help from others. All engineer, and the engineer must be willing to rational, objective, precise and straightforward his designs inherently organise for building contribute by proposing alternative structural and it has to work. Architecture can hide behind sequences and economy of the means. This is an solutions. Both must understand the thinking of the false premise, fashion, style, preconceived ideas exceptional tribute by an architect to his engineer other and give sufficient explanations of their work and symbols. collaborator and Kahn epitomised the qualities to allow for a full exchange of ideas.</p><p>10 ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS - STRUCTURES 11 INTRODUCTION Buckminster Fuller celebrated the architect as own aesthetic, for he must, in making his calcula- Engineer Tony Hunt believes that in the design communication skills are of the utmost importance an all-round designer throughout the centuries. tions, qualify some of the terms of his equation; and of any building the structure must combine with and all the barriers of personal interests, language, This role has become diluted by more specialised it is here that taste intervenes. Now, in handling a architecture and services to form an integrated education, professional prejudice and technical professions such as industrial and interior design mathematical problem, a man is regarding it from whole; engineers have to have the closest possible terminology have to be overcome in order to reach and engineering in the last 150 years. 'Architects a purely abstract point of view, and in such a state, working relationship with other members of the a mutual understanding, to be able to exchange have a very extraordinary responsibility - they his taste must follow a sure and certain path." design team from the initial concept right through ideas and reach agreements. Who becomes the really do have a responsibility for putting things Le Corbusier sought inspiration in engineering to its completion. The stimulus that comes from dominant figure in the team depends, as architect together in the era of specialisation the structures, ocean liners, automobiles and aeroplanes. this sort of working relationship produces the Peter Foggo has suggested, on the person who has architect is really all we have whose business is 'Working by calculations, engineers employ geomet- most successful buildings, economically and the best ideas. with On the other hand engineer Ove rical forms, satisfying our eyes by their geometry It opens up new possibilities and Arup underlined his own profession: 'The Modern and our understanding by their mathematics; their different ways of approaching the design of future EVERYTHING IS DESIGN Movement discovered that the work of bygone work is on the direct line of good almost by their nature, 'Everything made by man for man's use now has to engineers was in fact architecture. It is now At the end of his life Le Corbusier reiterated his excel at group work and avoid extravagant claims. be And in all these spheres dedicated accepted that bridges and factories and all that views: architect is the one who responds to They are very conscious that design usually engineers are trying to conjure forth that mythical are architecture. So is housing, in fact everything the human factor in the entire process, the whole requires many specialists who are designers in spiritual quality which is the essence of built is architecture. And the same spirit which is program; whereas the engineers take care of the their own right and who put different qualities Austrian architect Adolf Loos used to show his supposed to be moving architects is behind town- physics of things. These are two quite different into the product. Engineers are sensitive of claiming students a beautiful, British-made suitcase and say, planning and landscaping as well as interior design functions, which can combine admirably, even in sole On the other hand, architects 'This is and the same man but the function of the architect, often take credit for building designs and do not In modern buildings not clothed in any historical For Le Corbusier the engineer was holy. Le which was pre-eminent and dominant, felt itself mention the contribution by other professionals style it became paramount that structure was not Corbusier's machinist view of the world had the followed, if not overtaken, surpassed, by engineers..." without whom the final built form could not have hidden within the Spanish engineer engineer as the God-like figure directing the way all The important factor which in Le Corbusier's been Eduardo Torroja stated that structure has now objects should be analysed, calculated and designed eyes made the engineer superior to the architect Writer and research scientist C.P. Snow in his acquired an independent personality, so that its to distil the pure simplicity he admired. In his most was his detachment from history, unlike architecture lecture 'The Two Cultures' (1959) described the own intimate aesthetic quality could be famous book, Vers une architecture, published in that is so reliant on its past achievements. The difference between the intellectual and the scientist Critic John Ruskin defined architecture as the 1923 and based on articles written in collaboration nineteenth-century engineers had no historical and their inability to understand each other: `Two addition to a building of unnecessary features or with Amédée Ozenfant, Le Corbusier starts his examples to turn to, and therefore were able to find groups comparable in intelligence, identical in race, as the decoration of structure. The 'building will argument: 'The Engineer's aesthetic, and Architecture, natural expression for new materials. 'They were not grossly different in social origin, earning about generally be the noblest, which to an intelligent eye are two things that march together and follow one free to create new aesthetic values through the the same incomes, who had almost ceased to discovers the great secrets of its structure, as an from the other: the one being now at its full height, revealed energy and the almost miraculous lightness communicate at all who had so little in common animal form does, although from a careless the other in an unhappy state of retrogression. The of their gravity-defying that instead of going from Burlington House or observer they may be Engineer, inspired by the law of Economy and In the 1920s, at the time of scientific South Kensington to Chelsea one might have Structure is the main ingredient of governed by mathematical calculation, puts us in alism, the engineer was seen as the scientist and crossed an ocean because after a few thousand For French architect Eugene Emmanuele Viollet- accord with universal law. He achieves harmony the architect as the artist. The engineer could not Atlantic miles, one found Greenwich Village talking le-Duc all architecture derived from Engineers fabricate the tools of their time. Every- afford to be tainted with romanticism and history, precisely the same language as Chelsea, and both and its primary aim should be the outward expres- thing, that is to say, except houses and moth-eaten he had to be practical, progressive, knowledgeable having about as much communication with MIT as sion of structure. For him new architecture should boudoirs our engineers are healthy and virile, of the latest technology, trends and inventions in though the scientists spoke nothing but be based on novel principles of He active and useful, balanced and happy in their materials and, most importantly, work anonymously Despite Snow's illustration of the gulf between advocated the use of a new material, iron, in work. Our architects are disillusioned and unem- his work was more important to him than elevating the two cultures that could represent the architect combination with In the nineteenth ployed, boastful and peevish the engineer has his his personality into the public and the engineer, in the building team the century, as a consequence of their pioneering work,</p><p>12 ARCHITECTS - ENGINEERS - STRUCTURES 13 INTRODUCTION engineers were being appreciated by a number of AIMING FOR THE MINIMUM The prime rule to consider when designing a leading personalities. Prince Albert remarked: The engineer's work could be defined as the manipu- new structure is that it has to behave like a well- 'If we want any work of an unusual character and lation of physical forces to create structures and developed society, each element depending on the send for an architect, he hesitates, debates, trifles; machines. The engineer's aim is to achieve equilib- other. Individual structural members cannot act we send for an engineer and he does it.' Architect rium of a structural system. For engineering to be on their own but have to combine their functions Louis Sullivan maintained that 'the engineers were exceptional it has to be intuitive. Engineering is the into a complex whole, working together for the only men who could face a problem art of stripping down to the minimum, using the least common purpose. For example, single tensegrity Some engineers could argue that with their amount of material to perform a given Good structures would fall apart if just one member structural designs they created the Modern 'structure is all about doing more with less, using were to break down. The more rigid the assembly Movement by producing pure Austrian less material to support a given load or enclose a the better is the structure. Squares and rectangles architect Otto Wagner worried that 'the engineer given volume, or making a stiffer or stronger object are not rigid: only a diagonal is rigid, a triangle is who does not consider the nascent art-form but without using more The engineer always rigid, the intelligent building is a building only the structural calculation and the expense will combines an understanding of engineering science, with triangles. therefore speak a language unsympathetic to man, knowledge of the behaviour of materials and struc- Structure should comply with conditions and the while on the other hand, the architect's mode of tures, experience of construction process and his own limitations of economy; the condition of the least expression will remain unintelligible if in the successes and failures, thus bringing more into the cost or the greatest economy should always be creation of the art-form he does not start from design than inevitability based on scientific laws. observed and respected. The properties of materials construction. Both are great errors there can Architects who possess engineering intuition will used will influence the structural type to be be no question of the artist lowering the status of strive for minimum structure. took all the selected. Construction methods are also variable the engineer because the capabilities of both unnecessary weight out of the buildings to make for each specific material and the appearance of have probably only seldom been combined in one them as light as possible. It is often thought that the structure and its resistance to external factors individual in an outstanding way'.' heaviness is synonymous with observed will vary with the type of material used. is design. Everything can be German architect Mies van der Rohe, 'in my opinion There are three concepts to be considered in created. Everything, existence, everyday life, private it is just the opposite. That was precisely the every structure: equilibrium, resistance and stability. and public needs, strength, spirit, the responsibility of reason why Buckminster Fuller posed the classical Isaac Newton's laws of motion are significant in design, and of creative Structural ideas, for question: 'Do you know how much your building the study of structural engineering and its under- example in bridge construction, can be transferred weighs?' to architects to make them aware of how The first and third laws, when added to to architecture, as attempted in the Hongkong & important the consideration of lightness is in the law of elasticity, are instrumental in solving Shanghai Bank (1979-1985) by Foster Associates building construction. almost all structural problems. The first law states in Hong Kong. From the engineering point of view, Mies van der Rohe believed that form becomes that a body at rest will not move unless a new, as engineers Jack Zunz and Frank Newby pointed a consequence of structure and not the reason for unbalanced force is applied to The third law out, the exposed framework on the construction, structure in this sense is a philosophical states that, when a body is at rest, for each force appeared to be the load-bearing system that, under concept: whole, from top to bottom, to the applied to it a corresponding equal and opposite any substantial load, would deflect far too much last detail, with the same ideas'. balancing reaction is also applied to it. Newton's and be In fact, it carries little vertical An engineer's design begins by exploring the laws of rest are the fundamental laws establishing load but is a part of the lateral wind stiffness properties of materials to guide them in the gravity the balance that must exist between all the forces system. 'Only an architect could conceive of such field and to establish the logic of structural applied to a structure. The aim is to design a struc- a `Like the flying buttresses and mechanics. Engineers are concerned with materials ture to counteract the push and pull forces by vaults of a Gothic cathedral they are part of the and their behaviour; architects are involved with ranging them off against each other, game of architectural imagery.' their application and visual appearance. action and reaction'.</p><p>14 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 15 INTRODUCTION A good engineer takes an integrated view of the technology and imaginative uses of workforce, Johann August Roebling, the designer of the science and art. Spanish engineer Felix Candela structure that develops from a geometric idea and construction, equipment and design methodology Brooklyn Bridge (1867-1883) in New York, held found another reason for creating beauty, perhaps the necessary calculations. design a bridge, the usually fall outside the envelope of experience. a fundamental ethic of structural art being estab- the most plausible one, when he celebrated the engineer must imagine how the weight will transfer Therefore, knowing the limitations is a prompt lished on a material and spiritual basis. His ethic structural art of Swiss engineer Robert Maillart: from the bridge span to the supports, how the to came from strength combined with lightness and achieved a beauty without need or purpose; structure will be built, and what it will look like in According to Joerg Schlaich, 'the engineer elegance; nature never wasted heavy cumbrous just for the pure joy of it. The kind of joy that you service Most engineers focus solely on the knows about the natural beauty of an intelligent masses. For Roebling it was the visual expression can feel also in the works of Haydn or Vivaldi. transfer of weight by accepting a standard and clean structural design, often hating a poor of lightness and strength combined with the They were simply enjoying what they were doing, frequently built form that is known to be safe. solution solely because of its ugliness. He will be integration of form that could lead to works of art. and so was obviously Maillart.' By contrast, the best structural engineers keep all satisfied with his work only if it fulfils simultaneously Architect Konrad Wachsmann was fascinated by three criteria in mind. To do this, they rely on his own technical, economic, and aesthetic the cable as a structural element and that the ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTS GO simplified calculations. These are not less rigorous requirements. Depending on the case, he will 'sober fact, conceived purely as a technical SEPARATE WAYS or less accurate for being simpler; rather they are emphasise one over the other, but he is not a good tion, fired a grandiose vision of taut, airy, linear The Augustan architect Vitruvius confirmed that another way to look at the structure, one that is engineer if he neglects any one of these three networks of stressed cables, creating an abstract the architect was responsible for designing, visual as well as numerical, geometric rather than basic image of space. Technology had indirectly inspired construction and mechanics and for putting up a entirely algebraic, and one that suggests new a work, the effect of which was to demand the building with consideration of strength, utility and forms. By adopting this approach the engineer STRUCTURAL BEAUTY application of the concepts of art as a standard grace. In medieval times the master builder was strives not only for the least expensive structure to Architectural structures, if designed with sensitivity of both the architect and the engineer. The universal solve the given problem but also to obtain and skill, will contribute to our appreciation of While explaining the design of his tower, Eiffel Renaissance man was an artist as well as engineer. aesthetic vision and value in the final design. beauty. those of us who cannot live without believed that it would have its own beauty. The Florentine humanist and architect Leon Engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859) beauty, this is an encouraging thought. The separation first principle of architectural beauty is that the Battista Alberti wrote that an architect is able by remarked, on the occasion of the presentation of of technology and art is both unnecessary and essential lines of a construction be determined by art, method, thought and invention to devise and, his Clifton Suspension Bridge (1829-1864) incorrect; one is not an enemy of the other. Instead a perfect appropriateness to its use. The curves with execution, to complete all works by means of design, that engineers must work at the cutting it is essential to understand that technology is of its four piers as produced by our calculations, the movement of great weights and to be able to edge of technology otherwise their successors often a necessary component of art and that art rising from an enormous base, and narrowing do this he must have insight into the noble and would criticise them for their helps technology to serve man better. Nowhere is toward the top, will give a great impression of most curious sciences. An American engineer of Russian origin, Ley this more true than in architecture and structure, strength and During the Age of Reason pure sciences, Zetlin, believed that an understanding of analytical a marriage in which science and beauty combine to Beauty does not appear automatically through research and scientific law flourished. Then natural tools and their limitations is of extreme importance fulfil some of the most basic physical and spiritual calculations or technical perfection; the engineer and applied sciences were established. They developed in creativity. If designers know the limitations of needs of Structural beauty cannot exist has to be an artist, who handles the material with into new industries and technologies and moved their envelope of experience and understand when without structural correctness." poetic insight, revealing its inmost nature while out of the sphere of the influence of art. Art and a structure is beyond that range, they can formulate In 1867 in La Presse newspaper Theophile extracting its ultimate strength through structure science were placed on opposing sides and the split new techniques. Such knowledge aids in the Gautier stated: will produce a appropriate to its unique between architecture and engineering occurred. development of an intuitive approach to innovative completely new architecture of its period exactly The architectural critic Ada Louise Huxtable The architect withdrew from the scientific circle structural systems. If an engineer knows that the at the moment when the new methods created assessed Pier Luigi Nervi's importance by the fact into the protection of the arts and divorced formula for a 60-foot stone bridge cannot be by recently born industry are made use of. The that he had reunited architecture and himself from the effect of the rising influence of extrapolated to a bridge 300-feet long, then application of cast iron allows and enforces the His work re-established architecture as a primarily technology. With the coming of industrialisation in intuitively he will seek another solution. Innovative, use of many new forms, as can be seen in railway structural art, as it had always been in the best the mid 1850s the privileged role of the architect efficient, economic and aesthetically pleasing stations, suspension bridges, and the arches productive periods of the past. As such, Nervi's became threatened by the emergence of structural structures employing progressive materials and of finest buildings are an incontrovertible fusion of engineering as a separate profession.</p><p>16 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 17 INTRODUCTION Right: Bridging the Engineering, as a professional identity, was need to understand the rhythm of nature to building design initially engaged in military purposes, as opposed consider its effects on their designs for a including an cost and to construction. In Britain the Society of structure more human than in intensive discussion: Engineers was founded in 1771 at the Smeatonian Wind gusts, vehicle or people movement are (from left) Richard Buckminster Club and the Institution of Civil Engineers was dynamic loads that create resonance in Michael formed in 1818 by Henry R. Palmer. Thomas When a force is rhythmically applied to a structure Engineer: Tony Hunt, John Norman Telford was proposed as its first president. The with the same period as that of the structure, the and James in Royal Institute of British Architects and its well- force is in resonance with it. If the resonance The Team = The design known library were founded in 1834 under the creates rhythm with the structure oscillations, concept Opposite: Norman patronage of King William IV. The first president equal to the period of the structure, it will have Foster's vision of of the RIBA was the amateur architect Lord a catastrophic sive building design team of equal responsibilities Grantham, the 1st Earl de A bridge is a special kind of architecture; it for the de 'Is it the fate of architecture to give way to the interacting with the structure caused the newly has no function to accommodate or enclose project, art of engineering? Will the architect be eclipsed opened bridge to sway beyond acceptable limits. space, reality lays in structure itself the by the engineer?' asked Cesar Daly in Revue It had to be closed and improvements sought art of bridge building lies in the recognition and The generale d'architecture published in 1867. to eliminate the dangerous 'wobble' caused by development of the beauty latent in those structural At that time architect Davioud concluded that inadequate stiffness of the deck that lacked forms that most effectively exploit the strength architecture and engineering should be a union: transverse members and had hinge-connected and special properties of a given 'The accord will never become real, complete and edge beams along the deck. After a study of the A bridge has many meanings: primarily it is a fruitful until the day that the engineer, the artist, effects of pedestrians using the Millennium form of structure connecting one side to another and the scientist are fused together in the same Bridge it was found that people unwittingly but it is also an abstract phenomenon of ties person. We have for a long time lived under the synchronised their movement with the swaying of between different cultures, professions, communities foolish persuasion that the art is a kind of activity the structure thus into the same and The term the is distinct from all other forms of human intelligence, rhythm and exacerbating the problem. The used in a number of cases where an attempt is having its sole source and origin in the personality dynamic behaviour of the bridge, especially this being made to make contact, to iron out differences of the artist himself, and in his capricious particular reaction, had not been investigated and meet the other side on comparative and The fully as a more random pattern was expected. equal terms. BRIDGING THE GAP The phenomenon of involuntary synchronisation Architects and structural engineers have to structural There would be no development in structural or runs through nature and engineers, as well as work closely in developing designs from early architectural ideas without people involving architects, should learn from it. Audiences move concepts to the final design and construction. engineer selves physically and emotionally with buildings. to music, Malaysian fireflies coordinate their are equal parents to their As Torroja pointed out: structural design, as in flashing, women's monthly cycles coincide when Dutch architect Rem Koolhaas valued his all human work, the fundamental thing is man they are confined to enforced collaborator, Arup engineer Cecil Balmond himself. The Millennium Bridge project (Foster Physicist Christian Huygens described how two (1945-): he has changed my outlook on structure and Partners, Sir Anthony Caro, Ove Arup & clocks standing on the same shelf tend to tick in and enabled me to rethink German Partners, in London raises an time because weak vibrations keep them locked architect Daniel Libeskind celebrated Balmond: important issue: an understanding of the human together. The Moon spins round its own axis at `He is there with us from the beginning with his The element and its relationship to the science of the same frequency as it rotates about the Earth; keen insights and keen design ability. Even Philip When used for the first time, people that is why we only see its one face. Designers Johnson trusted Balmond with the decision</p><p>18 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 19 INTRODUCTION making: It was clear to me that this man knew with that push and the early NEW ARCHITECTURE INSPIRED BY NEW ceilings and mats. Structure and enclosure are perfectly what it was I of architecture there was the 50,000 pounds a STRUCTURE treated separately, columns support the roofs and An engineer's contribution to the design process square inch compression-resisting capability of It was the use of novel materials, cast and wrought the screens, divorced from the main structure, is the knowledge of the behaviour and science of masonry, which only had 50 pounds of tensile iron, and daring engineering developed in the mid slide to expand the views out or shelter the materials under weight and stress and how to strength. This state was overturned with steel, 1840s that inspired the beginnings of modern private areas. The character of architecture employ them in the most efficient way. However, which achieved 50,000 pounds per square inch It started with Henri Labrouste's changes with time and movement uniting indoors structural design is not only concerned with in tension. changed its parity with Bibliotheque Ste Genevieve (1843-1850) and with The regular structure and translucent science, mathematics and techniques, also compression for the first time in The Bibliotheque Nationale (1858-1868) in Paris, enclosure elements complement each other into a with art, common sense, sentiment, aptitude and progress of evolving new materials brought higher Joseph Paxton's Crystal Palace (1850-1851) in unified whole. enjoyment of the task of creating opportune values of tension capability and introduced new London and continued later with the Eiffel Tower Mies van der Rohe arrived in the United States outlines to which scientific calculations will add structure and architecture using materials such (1884-1889) and Charles-Louis-Ferdinand in 1937 and incorporated the American finishing Mathematics is only a tool. as high carbon steel (70,000 pounds per square Dutert's and Victor Contamin's Palais des rationale into his designs. He transformed The primary purpose of structure is to enclose inch) and chrome nickel steel (350,000 pounds Machines in Paris (1886-1889). the steel skeleton into a simple structural cage space and protect it from the natural elements, per square inch). More recently carbon fibres The use of steel (whose manufacture was filled with a variety of materials - glass, brick, to provide communication links for the movement (600,000 pounds per square inch) have been used pioneered by Henry Bessemer and Robert Mushet concrete, stone - and used structure as a form of people and vehicles, to resist the lateral thrust which weigh one quarter of the weight of steel and in the 1850s) and reinforced concrete (which generator. His teaching of architecture was based of earth and water. Every constructional problem achieve 48 times the strength for the same amount developed out of a number of experiments with on this fundamental principle. is conditioned essentially by a final purpose, and weight of Much more can be accomplished concrete and mesh of iron and later steel rods) Architecture and engineering came together secondly by certain essential conditions to be met, with lighter material. was introduced into new design and construction during the high-tech movement, allowing a thirdly by secondary requirements, and finally by In the past architects and builders had only techniques at the end of the nineteenth century. new, free expression of structure. Archigram's material means available for its 'gravity to defeat They put weight upon Le Corbusier's reinforced concrete frame Domino space-age mobility projects of the decade before For Torroja it was fundamental that the weight resulting in pure compression structures. House (1914) established the freedom the new and contemporary admiration for the excellence of process of visualising or conceiving a structure The Egyptian pyramid exemplified the compression material offered to architecture and led to pure past British engineering in the steam, iron and is an art. Basically it is motivated by an inner structure. With the introduction of new materials cubic Russian Constructivism machine age brought the structure and services to experience, by an such as iron, glass, reinforced concrete and steel, expressed, with new forms and materials, its be visibly celebrated on the outside of buildings. new possibilities The change was symbolised association with modern science and engineering, The steel columns, beams, struts, ties and cables INTRODUCTION OF TENSION by the suspension bridge, the perfect symbol of although its symbolic assemblies were more shrouded the new architecture in the same way Buckminster Fuller explained the advances in tension structure. Concrete with reinforcing bars sculptures than engineer-designed objects. Some that the buttresses on Gothic cathedrals were engineering since the introduction of steel into the created continuous structure. 'As a result of this structures suggested construction for construction's expressed. The proud construction of the Victorian building industry in the late nineteenth century. continuous structure, in which tension and sake but they celebrated the heroic proportions of steam pistons and pipes become This new material brought tension into consideration compression forces alternate and flow into each structural elements. transformed into cast steel gerberettes, steel rods, for the first time. 'We have in the universe a other along predetermined lines, we can now In countries like Japan structural architecture ties and ductwork of the most famous building of tendency to expand and contract and in this cantilever structures way out into the is inherent in their cultural tradition. Japanese the 1970s - the Pompidou Centre by Piano & expanding and contracting the expansion which we The new materials and techniques brought a new vernacular architecture uses a modular system Rogers in Paris. critics saw this application call radiation brings about pressure, compression, era in the construction of buildings and a realisation determined by the span of beams and of technology as false and unnatural and that the and the gravity copes with the other tendency and of the dreams and ambitions of defying gravity. Their sizes are not based just on structural technology was used as scenery, as a pattern pulls the thing together. Gravity is tension, radiation This far-reaching change had enormous influence requirements but also on aesthetic parameters. catalogue for new design ideas, a new formalistic is compression, and all buildings, structures, all on the development of architecture and the Structural order is given to the basic framework 'A convincing structure is always rational interaction, every realisation physically is in play engineering of buildings. and to its individual parts such as the screens, and minimalised, never expressionist."</p><p>21 MEDIEVAL ARCHITECTS 20 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES A Celebration of Architects-Engineers Medieval cathedral architects rods or chains, and newly invented The purpose of this book is to applaud The doubling of the population in the machines for hoisting and scaffolding the fusion of architect and engineer. Middle Ages brought technological allowed architects to achieve more splen- Some architects may have had an advances in agriculture and the growth of dour with taller buildings with greater engineering background, and engineers towns as commercial centres. Demand spans of Working drawings experience of architecture. Some forgot- increased for the construction of commu- instructing the masons drawn on parch- ten and hardly acknowledged engineers nication links between markets, ment or incised into the walls and floors stood modestly behind the great workshops and farms and for new of the cathedrals, monasteries and architects. Architects were encouraged buildings in existing and new settlements. churches, still survive. Gothic architecture and supported by their rators in designing structures that Stone replaced wood as the main with the vaulted ribbing demonstrates appear to defy gravity. This fusion of construction material, providing better three-dimensional thinking applied to design and engineering can lead to quality buildings of greater value, more structure. The function of the stiffening exceptional creativity, and defensible and resistant. Use of stone was vault surfaces and the ribs transmitting the forces gave rise to points of intersec- intuitiveness while supported by the use more costly; it had to be transported long of innovative materials, techniques and distances and needed skilled masons to tion of complex planes, which bent away solutions to structural problems creating work it. However, stone allowed more on all sides. 'In spite of the fantastic new expression in architecture. There impressive and daring buildings, giving wealth of movement, the system of are a large number of very good master masons a larger freedom in intercepts, in which more than two lines ples and below is a chronological construction. The architect, who was never cross at one point, and the clustering selection that illustrates the development trained from master mason, as the leader into a single shaft show the simplicity of variety of forms and structures of the craft guilds, rose in stature to with which the arrangement of curving, achieved by the successful integration design, organise and supervise the mutually supported ribs is and partnership between architects construction. He worked closely with the The clearly visible lofty structure of the and engineers. patron, the client, dependent on each Gothic system of vaulting, despite its other's skills, abilities, health and the requirement of buttresses to reach equi- Please note that project headings and patron's financial The use of librium, became an inspiration to future Opposite: vaulting St Vitus captions, the project's engineer appears in italics man-made iron, initially employed as tie designers. Structure became architecture. Prague,</p><p>22 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 23 THE BRIDGE Filippo Brunelleschi and the dome of clever experiment; he used an optical Santa Maria del Fiore, Florence, device to display a vista that conjured 1420-1436 up a realistic view with a painted view is so stubborn, or so jealous as by looking through a pin point and not to praise Pippo the architect when mirror reflection of the painting and the he sees here so great a structure, rising sky. The observer was not sure if he saw above the heavens, broad enough to the actual townscape only a perfect cover with its shade all the people of illusion of the reality'. Tuscany, made without any aid of Brunelleschi created the Santa Maria centring or other quantity of timber, an del Fiore dome 84 metres above the achievement which, if I am not ground with a diameter of 42 metres mistaken, was believed to be impossible and a rise of 32 metres. It was octagonal in our time even as, among the ancients, on the outside but disguised its true it may well have been unknown and construction on the inside. He devised a Thomas unheard So said Leon Battista framework of nine circles within the The Menal Alberti about the work of his external octagonal envelope of the 1818-26 Brunelleschi (1377-1446) was a known dome. The dome consisted of two shells, exploiter of illusion, and a re-discoverer which contained inner horizontal rings Thomas Telford, The Menai Bridge, did not have an intimate knowledge of no precedents to follow he carried out of the vanishing point and perspective or circular arches. The components of Anglesey, 1818-1826 geometry and engaged in few calcula- many experiments into the tensile views in painting in the early stages of the arch were held together by forces Thomas Telford (1757-1834) began as tions. He did, however, carry out many strength of malleable iron. Tests and Italian Renaissance. He devised a induced by their own weight and when a stonemason and progressed to archi- structural tests of elements and models of chains were made to check the arch was finished it became stable. tect, road, bridge and canal builder and surveyed the behaviour of built struc- the lengths of the vertical suspension Right: Because these rings could not be engineer. This range of experience in tures and their setting in the Finally sixteen chains were used, the Dome of completed simultaneously an additional construction brought the perfect back- The oldest surviving of Telford's cast suspended from tall towers where grey Santa Maria del form of masonry had to be used to stop ground for his work: is the true iron bridges is the impressive Craig- limestone was dowelled together with them falling apart. At regular intervals way of acquiring practical skill, a Ellachie (1812-1815) at Elgin with its iron bars to strengthen the masonry. they were intersected by herringbone thorough knowledge of materials to 150-foot span. The poet Robert Southey From the chains the suspended road pattern masonry laid at right angles to be employed'." expressed the elegance of Telford design platform was erected. The final outcome the horizontal arches, which provided Telford was fascinated and inspired eloquently: 'As went along the road by was observed as some great magician pressure from either side and prevented by the work of another architect, the side of the water I could see no than the mere result of man's skill and the rings from dropping to the floor of Thomas Farnolls Pritchard's Coalbrook- bridge; at last came in sight of some- industry'. While still designing the the cathedral. Previously used in dale cast iron bridge (1777-1779). The thing like a spider's web in the air - bridge Telford was influenced by Davies Persian and Byzantine structures, new material used in this bridge struc- if this be it, thought I, it will never do! Gilbert, the Holyhead Road commis- Brunelleschi brought this unusual and ture showed the possibilities of new But presently I came upon it, and oh, it sioner and scientist, who, after careful ingenious technique back from obscurity. form with lightness, strength and is the finest thing that ever was made by calculations, urged him to increase the He not only designed the dome but also economy. Telford established his aim: God or chain sag from 34 to 50 feet. Telford devised all the machines for hoisting the 'To improve the principles of constructing The Menai Bridge had a great consented to adjust the total chain sag materials and workers during construc- iron bridges, also their external appear- aesthetic influence on structural designers to 43 feet. The scientific study followed tion. Nothing was omitted to achieve the ance to save a very considerable after Telford. At that time the large the design and did not stimulate ideas impossible, 'design and construction portion of iron and consequently span suspension bridge was an untried on form, but did influence the final were in perfect Brunelleschi weight'. Telford was interested in option in Britain. Telford reasoned that work. 'It was Telford's engineering created the most inspiring dome in the design efficiency. He was an intuitive the suspension concept was the only design that stimulated Gilbert's world, one of the greatest building designer; he was not immersed in theo- way to bridge the Straits with the research. Art preceded science in the triumphs of all time. ries or mathematical formulations, specified clearances and spans. With development of engineering structure."</p><p>24 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 25 THE PALM HOUSE Decimus Burton, Richard Turner, In the end their roles were divided: The Palm House, Kew, 1844-1848 Turner was responsible for the overall The new materials of cast iron and layout and Burton designed the glass required the close cooperation of centre portion. architect and engineer, as the architect The execution of the project was left Left: Roy The relied on the engineer for his knowledge to Turner and his works based in Dublin. Palm House, of the materials and their behaviour and The lower curved ribs were supported private for the practical skills of fabrication. by cast iron columns and brackets which in turn carried the upper ribs and Below: Joseph Architect Decimus Burton Decimus The (1800-1881), needed the engineer, the balcony in the centre. The ribs were Great Stove, Chatsworth, Richard Turner (1798-1881), to realise braced together with wrought iron rods his ideas, depending on Turner who had inside cast iron tubes acting as purlins. the best experience of cast and wrought The rods were tensioned after the building iron and glass. At the time of the was assembled, placing the purlins in construction of the Winter Garden glass compression and binding the whole pavilion at Regent's Park, London post-tensioned structure. The centre roof (1845-1846), Burton and Turner sat on tubular cast iron columns, which offered to Sir William Jackson Hooker, acted also as the rainwater pipes carrying director of the Royal Botanic Gardens water to the interior water tanks. The at Kew, separate designs for a new Palm overall length of the Palm House was House. Turner's proposal was accepted 110 metres with the central section 42 although Burton submitted an alternative metres long, 30.5 metres wide and 21 with the centre section resembling the metres high. Its lightness and space Great Stove at Chatsworth surprise to this day. Left: Decimus Burton, Richard Turner, The Palm House, Kew,</p><p>26 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 27 CRYSTAL PALACE Joseph Paxton, Charles Fox (Fox As a self-taught gardener Paxton Henderson & Co), Crystal Palace, (1801-1865) was able to appreciate London, 1850-1851 other facets of design, which he and There was something impressionistic Decimus Burton, whose office provided about the concept of the Crystal the working drawings, had already used Palace. Many observers described the on the Great There he focused on building as fairy-like, incomparable, glass assemblies, materials, details, the disappearing into the distance, with nature and structure of plants and light pouring down, the interior resem- water features, acting as a showman of bling the open air, an endless and landscape feats, an organiser of people shadow-less space, glass-covered and a conjurer of surprise. Nature vacuum, transparent and fragile. helped Paxton determine his structural tectural historian Sigfried Giedion concepts; he studied the underside of compared these impressions of the Victoria regia leaves where the primary material blending into the atmosphere to ribs act as cantilevers and the thin J.M.W. Turner's paintings and especially cross ribs between them reinforce the of his Simplon Pass 1840) where a main members. humid atmosphere dematerialised the For the Crystal Palace, Paxton landscape and dissolved it into infinity. devised a logical system enabling the For Giedion this comparison proved fast erection needed to complete the that the artistic conception of the construction on time. Only a building Palace outdistanced the technical with mass-produced, prefabricated, possibilities of the era. Never before standardised elements could fulfil the had so much space been enclosed with construction deadline. The Crystal so little; the focus was on the exhibits Palace design was based on a 24-foot Below: Structure of not on the envelope. structural grid and on an assembly of Victoria regia leaf 4-foot by 10-inch glass panes held in machined timber frames and formed into a ribbed roof. Flat timber gutters tensioned with underside trussing rested on the main cast iron and timber trusses and columns. The structure cleverly formed the scaffolding for the building construction. The simplicity, interchangeability and standardisation of the components helped to organise the nine months' construction process including fabrication, supply and assembly on a vast scale never achieved Above: Joseph before. This was a modular, flexible Charles Fox (Fox Henderson & Crystal system suitable for any site, a techno- 1850-51 logical ideal with aesthetics in its own right. German critic Lothar Bucher confirmed that the Crystal Palace was a revolution in architecture from which a new style would</p><p>28 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 29 CHURCH OF THE SAGRADA FAMILIA Antonio Gaudi, Church of the Sagrada Familia, Barcelona, 1883-1926 Gaudi (1852-1926) was inspired by nature. Trees were a great influence on his architecture, the branches, twigs and leaves growing in symphony with the other the artist God created Gaudi did not join the Gothic Revival advocated in his time, seeing through its structural dishonesty where tall decorated vaults created large horizontal forces that had to be stabilised by buttresses which Gaudi called Gaudi attempted to rationalise Gothic architecture with his own view of structural integrity and economy by carrying lateral thrusts more directly to the although even this approach was not entirely resolved in pure structural terms. His buildings were highlighted with sculptural and surface modelling which expressed the spirituality of his When designing his vaulted structures, Gaudi used the empirical method of hanging weights, equal to the weights of Right: Antonio Gaudi, the masonry, from networks of flexible Church of the Sagrada Familia, cords and then notionally inverting them. Gaudi learned that he had to increase all cross-sectional dimensions Opposite right: Antonio Gaudi, Colonia Guell of masonry elements in recognition of Chapel near Barcelona, the change from the tension of the model representing the hanging model to compression of the calculations of real structure. Gaudi's buildings were surfaces hanging in the workshop beside the built as proven by his experiments. They chapel used this closely reproduced, with compression method not only for replacing tension, the action of his structural but to check the aesthetics of funicular models and were among the the external most rational structures. BOURNEMOUTH & POOLE COLLEGE WN</p><p>30 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 31 THE EIFFEL TOWER level Jenney received a letter from the Carnegie-Phipps Steel Company of Pittsburgh offering to substitute the iron beams with Bessemer steel beams. Jenney agreed and the next four floors were built using steel beams. This was the first time that structural steel was used in a building frame construction. The Home Insurance building was completed in 1885 and later extended to twelve storeys, becoming the first Jenney's structurally advanced frame was mostly hidden in the masonry and the building appearance still retained the eclectic Victorian detailing to the In his second Leiter Building (1889-1890), the structure evolved to a fully steel-framed building with all interior walls as non- loadbearing. On the outside elevations Jenney expressed the structure using Alexandre Gustave Eiffel, Maurice 18,000 individual elements of the Tower. Above: Maurice Construction began in January 1887 Emile Tower plate glass windows within the skeleton Koechlin, Emile Nouguier, Stephen Design for the 1889 The contemporary Industrial Sauvestre, Frederic Auguste and completed in March 1889. The World's Fair Paris, John Wellborn Daniel Hudson Chicago commented: 'It has been Bartholdi, The Eiffel Tower, overall height of the Tower was 312 Reliance constructed with the same science and Paris, 1884-1889 metres. Hydraulic lifts accommodated in Building Chicago, all the careful inspection that would be In June 1884 the Eiffel Tower design the eastern and western piers were used in the construction of a steel rail- for the 1889 Paris World's Fair was installed two months after the official William Le Baron Jenney, John road bridge of the first order a conceived as a 300-metre high structure opening. A power station was built Wellborn Root, Chicago Skyscrapers, commercial pile in a style undreamed of by Koechlin (1856-1946) and Nouguier, under the southern pier. 1880s when Buonarroti erected the greatest who worked as chief engineers in the Initially there was great opposition to The 1871 fire that devastated Chicago temple of Eiffel et Cie office. The Tower consisted the Tower from many leading French showed that any exposed cast iron used The architecture of the steel frame of four tapering piers of lattice girders intellectuals including Alexandre Dumas as building structure had to be covered was further advanced by John Wellborn spread out at the base and coming Jr, Guy Maupassant and Joris-Karl in brick or masonry to protect it from Root (1850-1891), assisted by his together at the Metal girders at six mans. But soon after its completion the failure. In 1883 engineer and architect partner Daniel Hudson Burnham levels joined the legs horizontally. In Tower became a Parisian icon expressing William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907), (1846-1912), in their Reliance Building September 1884 Eiffel (1832-1923) perfectly the French joie de vivre, spirit who was educated at the Ecole which was begun in Chicago in 1890 registered this design with Koechlin's and daring. Painters, sculptors and writ- Polytechnique and the Ecole Centrale and completed in Here the large and Nouguier's agreement. Architect ers fell under its spell. Robert Delaunay in Paris, was asked to design an office horizontally proportioned windows Sauvestre and sculptor were painted over fifty canvases with the Eiffel building in Chicago for the Home Insur- bowed out of the façade and the overall commissioned to work on the Tower's Tower as the main theme. Le Corbusier ance Company of New Jenney's design had classical tall building scale. appearance and proposed stone praised Eiffel as his calculations were proposition and construction changed Giedion stated: its airiness and pedestals, monumental arches to link inspired by an admirable instinct for the American townscape forever. Jenney purity of proportion, this building serves the legs under the first a bulb- proportion and his goal was elegance. At devised a framework of bolted cast iron to symbolise the spirit of the Chicago shaped top, glass-wall halls at each level that time Dutch architect Henry van de columns and wrought iron joist beams school, whose swan song it was this and even additional small side towers Velde said that the artists who have within the masonry walls to support the Chicago building is something more attached at first and second created a new architecture were the engi- main load of the building. As the iron than an incentive for fantasy: an archi- Over 5,300 drawings were prepared for neers. The engineer came to be heralded skeleton construction reached the sixth tectonic anticipation of the the final design, detailing more than as l'homme moderne par</p><p>32 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 33 REINFORCED CONCRETE RNATIONAL EXHIBITION 1901 PETITIONDESIGN BUILDINGS VATION Charles Rennie Mackintosh, Concert Hall Project, Glasgow, 1901 A drawing in the archives of the Hunterian Art Gallery, University of Glasgow indicates that Mackintosh (1868-1928) designed a concert hall for the city and submitted it for a competition. The concert hall would have been part of the 1901 Glasgow International The hall had 4,000 seats, was circular in plan and covered by a vast dome constructed of glass, timber and brick, a used for the London Millennium Dome by Richard Rogers Partnership and Buro (1996-1999) one hundred years later. It is assumed that Mackin- tosh was inspired by the dome of Hagia PIAN Sophia in However, like many of his proposals, the scheme was ahead Above: Charles Rennie Concert of its time and was not even short-listed Project, 1901 by the selection committee.</p><p>34 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 35 AIRSHIP HANGARS Eugene Freyssinet, Airship Hangars, The hangars were Orly, 1916-1924 destroyed in 1944. Eugene Freyssinet (1879-1962) was an In 1907 Freyssinet designed the engineer who built large innovative prestressed Le Veurdre Bridge near structures with harmonious forms, Vichy, Initially he built a full-scale test which had enormous influence on the arch to observe the behaviour of development of architecture. Freyssinet concrete where the reinforcement tie designed two large hangars at Orly, each bars ran horizontally from one abut- 300 metres long, 86 metres wide and ment to the other and were anchored at over 50 metres high, consisting of one end and pulled at the other. He trough-shaped arches forming continuous noticed that the two arch ends moved barrel vaults in the form of a parabola together, keeping the arch in permanent with the arch profile based on the thrust compression. What Freyssinet had not line for a dead load. The slab forming considered was that eventually creep the troughs was from 80-200 millimetres would be induced into the structure, a thick, increasing towards the base. The new phenomenon for him. A year after stresses were taken up by the founda- the completion of Le Veurdre Bridge, tions without generating severe tension Freyssinet, having been observing its in the vaulting and the strength created behaviour closely, noticed the bridge by the folded trough profile reduced moving suddenly downward one night. reinforcement to a minimum. The He and his helpers rushed to insert centring which carried the formwork for decentring jacks into the crowns of casting the trough sections was moved the spans and pushed the dropping on rails as construction progressed. The arch halves apart, raising the arches architecture of this simple and clear again. With concrete filling poured into structural concept was widely publicised the openings in the crowns the compres- and influenced the work of Nervi and sion was re-introduced and the first other designers. Le Corbusier used it as of Freyssinet's prestressed structures a modernist icon in his book Vers une was Eugene Airship Hangar, Left: Eugene Sketch for St Michel 1958</p><p>Left: Monument to the Third Left: Arch. Ravaze, Jean International, 1919-20. Lyon, 1931 Below left: Albert Leon Bazin, Garage Marbeuf, Paris, nt to the parts, is the best expression of the A contemporary description explained Albert Laprade, Leon Bazin, Jean Ravaze, official architectural Renaissance, so the spiral is the expres- the tower's monumental concept of a Prouvé, Etablissements consultant, and Jean Woelflin, a sion of our logarithmic spiral with three platonic Garage Marbeuf, Glass structural engineer. It involved a large was the The main concept of the Monument solids further: 'The proportion between Paris, 1929 glass wall situated on a splayed loscow streets was based on an organic synthesis of glass and iron is the measure of material For the Garage Marbeuf, Prouvé corner of the building. The structural banner hung architecture, sculpture and painting. rhythm. By the union of these two (1901-1984) was involved as a elements required for the window onument when The steel tower, based on an elaborate fundamentally important materials, a consultant for architects Laprade and were manufactured at work- st time in the system of vertical pillars and spirals, compact and imposing simplicity and, Bazin and showed his skill by supporting shop at 50 rue des Jardiniers in 85-1953) was contained three large glass volumes. at the same time, relation, is expressed, a large 19 by 21 metre glass façade Nancy which was newly equipped with for The rooms had varied but harmonically since these materials, for both of which using only two vertical bow-shaped lifting-table presses and other machin- to the corresponding forms and they moved at fire is the creator of life, form the steel posts. The window screened the ery, The main structural members tional in 1919. different speeds. The lower cubic storey elements of modern art. By their union, internal atrium with five levels of were 220 millimetre steel column 00 metres high, was for legislative and rhythms must be created of mighty display galleries. This structural feat sections encased in characteristic th-century rotated around its own axis once a year. power, as though an ocean were being alone demonstrates Prouvé's singular, Prouvé-folded steel sheets and the Eiffel The middle pyramidal storey accommo- By the transformation of these individual approach to his work, screwed together. In the 1980s Prouvé ed nineteenth- dated executive bodies and turned once a forms into reality, dynamics will be Although Prouvé's participation in this recalled: the construction form of the The top cylinder had information embodied in unsurpassable magnifi- project is not absolutely certain the point of view it was interesting Tatlin selected offices and moved every twenty-four cence, just as the pyramids once and for design carries all the hallmarks of because it was made entirely of folded c. Its content hours. Radio antennas finished the top all expressed the principle of his genius. sheet The screws? To screw the His aim was to of the The walls were This project was Tatlin's homage to The following project was the sheets together. At that time we had creative form. designed with a vacuum cavity to main- Eiffel as well as a celebration of the Citroen Garage in Lyon no large folding presses, so we fixed its balance of tain a constant room dynamic Russian Revolution. where Prouvé advised architect the sheets together."</p><p>38 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 39 ZARZUELA HIPPODROME Carlos Arniches, Martin Dominguez, a virtue. To determine form he analysed Eduardo Torroja y Miret, Zarzuela the networks set up by systems of stress, Hippodrome, Madrid, 1935 the lines of tension and compression. Frank Lloyd Wright described Torroja His favourite materials were reinforced expressed the princi- and prestressed He said: My ples of organic construction better than final aim has always been for the any engineer I Torroja believed in functional, structural, and aesthetic imagination, calculations only serving to aspects of a project to present an Below: Aircraft Hangar, prove whether what has been imagined integrated whole, both in essence and Vientos, 1949 would stand. For Torroja simplicity was appearance. The design for the Zarzuela Hippodrome confirms that his times than The Above: Carlos Amiches, goals were achieved. The large roof vaults were counterbalanced by vertical Martin Eduardo cantilever hovering over the stands tie rods located behind the main Zarzuela utilised a series of shells or lobes of columns. During the Spanish Civil War Madrid, 1935 hyperboloid sector. The thickness of the in 1936 the stands were subjected to shell varied from 50 millimetres at the bombardment, the roof was hit and free edge to 130 millimetres at the perforated 26 times and repeatedly crown over the main When cracked by vibrations. Despite this the tested the structure proved to be three structure withstood the</p><p>40 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 41 JOHNSON & SON ADMINISTRATION BUILDING Pier Luigi Nervi, Aircraft Hangars, the combination of flexural and axial discontinuous structure formed by a Orvieto, Orbetello and Torre del Lago, stresses. Although an engineer, Nervi double series of poured-in-place ribs 1936-1940 thought of himself as an architect. For completed by a horizontal truss over the According to Nervi (1891-1979), him the proper title of a man capable of openings. As this was an indeterminate construction is a typical expression of conceiving and building a structure was structure it was not possible to analyse it the creativity of human activity and the an architect. He believed that to build exactly. Through simplified calculations most significant element in the develop- correctly was the essence of architecture; and intuitive reasoning Nervi evaluated ment of its civilisation. Nervi believed structural correctness was synonymous the stresses and determined the sizes of that it was impossible to lift construction with functional, technical and economic ribs and ascertained the results with to such a high level of achievement that truthfulness and this was sufficient to model analysis. There was great anxiety it was a pure work of art but it was produce satisfactory aesthetic results. when the scaffolding was removed; possible to orient construction towards Buildings conceived in terms of structure, measuring gauges checking deflections the simultaneous satisfaction of func- function and economy would be art. showed momentary irregularity due tional, economic and aesthetic The Aircraft Hangar structure was the to simultaneous support of columns requirements. Nervi was the master of most difficult of Nervi's career. His and scaffolding, but they adjusted reinforced concrete and ferro-cement. construction firm, Nervi & Bartoli, built themselves to the expected The For him reinforced concrete was the eight hangars for the Italian Air Force later hangars were each held on six most fertile, ductile and complete between 1936 and The two symmetrical supports and the vaults construction process that mankind had original hangars had internal dimensions were constructed with precast trusses found and the development of new of 45 by 111.5 metres with two openings joined by welding the reinforcing steel aesthetics was brought about by the of 50 metres wide by 8 metres high for and pouring concrete into the joints. The Frank Lloyd Wright, Mendel since the engineers in their structural unique construction and plastic poten- moveable doors. The building budget was retreating German Army destroyed these Glickman, S.C. Johnson & Son conceptions are very seldom guided by tialities of this Although very After several design graceful structures in 1944. Ada Louise Administration Building, 1936-1939, eternal laws of the Nature The average reinforced concrete beams lost the rigidity attempts Nervi chose a single resisting Huxtable thought that Nervi's buildings and Frank Lloyd Wright, Jaroslav J. engineer knows only beams, girders, of wooden beams or metal forms they vaulted form where the stresses could be were remarkable for the clarity of their Polivka, Laboratory Tower, Racine, columns and any deviation from his were able to be moulded according to the spontaneously diffused until they reached engineering. The shapes and forms 1946-1950 every day tools is considered as unusual, line of the bending moments and the the columns placed on the three sides stemmed directly from their structural In 1946 Wright (1867-1959) wrote an crazy, or The letter brought shearing stress. As vertical supports they and the central column on the side of the logic and even the layman could feel article in Architectural Forum about in return Wright's invitation to Taliesin lost the prismatic quality of columns and doors. However, due to asymmetry of the tension, compression and direction of the difficulties he had with the steel and opened a professional relationship pillars in stone but could be adapted to supports Nervi finally decided to use a forces within them. company engineers who condemned his that lasted until Wright's death. Fallingwater house (1934-1937) struc- Wright was a protagonist of organic Above left: Frank Lloyd Right: Pier tural Wright wrote to Edgar architecture, designing predominantly Bear Run, Pennsylvania, Aircraft Orvieto, Kaufmann, his client, saying: should horizontal, low buildings. He was preoc- like this box [with this letter] put under cupied with the continuity and plasticity Above: Frank the cornerstone of your house when the of seashells and cocoons as ideal struc- Mendel Glickman cornerstone is want this done so tural examples. When designing tall & Administration Building that when the house is torn down, 2,000 buildings he sought inspiration in central years from now, people will learn what nature, which came in a form of a tree. Racine, complete damn fools these engineers The tree is a vertical beam cantilevered are! Prague-born structural engineer from the ground, an expression of conti- Jaroslav Josef Polivka (1886-1960) nuity representing the natural balance responded to the article by sending of forces. For Wright the cantilever was Wright an enthusiastic letter: am the `most romantic, most free, of all admiring you as an engineer, although, principles of construction'. This according to a quotation in the last inspiration was used for the 15-storey Forum issue, these engineers are Laboratory Tower at Racine completed complete damn fools. You may be right in 1950 in collaboration with Polivka.</p><p>Below: Frank Wright, Butterfly-wing Bridge San 1949 Left: Frank Wright, Polivka Laboratory Tower, Below: Frank Lloyd Wright and Herbert F Johnson at the calyx column test, June 3. 1937 concrete centre core dimensions of the central hall column the columns for the architect, was also test said that their mentor's building structural concepts so it was not stairs and services design, which went against the code, and on hand At 4 p.m. after eighteen tons technique is based entirely on the surprising that he got on well with his structural support for the requested tests. The columns were 22 of sand had failed to crack the pillar, marriage of building He calls collaborators. Wright struggled with the and circular floors feet high with 8.5 feet diameter petal workmen and visitors retired to the organic spiral ramp on the Guggenheim cantilevering 21.5 and heads supported on a calyx; each had company recreation building for beer, Structural engineer Mendel Glickman Museum in New York (1943-1959) and total height of the core a base diameter of 9 inches (the code and a breathing spell, and a (1897-1967), who worked on the S.C. considered incorporating columns along with 54 feet as the 'tap- asked for a 30-inch diameter column for short talk by the architect At 6 p.m. Johnson building for Wright, was a its inner edge. Polivka, an expert in on. Glass tube cladding this height). There were over sixty the structure was still standing and member of the Taliesin fellowship. He experimental stress analysis and photo- building spanning two columns on a 20-foot grid supporting the plans were made for continuing the test was born in Vitebsk, Russia and came to elasticity, offered to help with the design ime and uninterrupted by glass tube roof and the mezzanine floor. Friday, adding weight until the column the USA in 1907. From 1932 he acted and eliminate the columns. After a ports. 'Wright, Wisconsin's internationally crashes Secret of weight carrying as consulting engineer with Frank Lloyd number of experiments Polivka ved, streamlined, horizontal famous architect, Thursday won the first ability of the new pillar, according to Wright and Taliesin Architects. William suggested replacing the trigonometric & Son Administration round of an encounter with the Wisconsin Wright, lies in its departure from Wesley Peters, Wright's son-in-law, also spiral with a spirally warped ramp, structed between 1936 and Industrial Commission. He successfully conventional way of building concrete an engineer, said about Glickman in which offered much greater stiffness. al columns were loaded 24 tons of sand on top of a test pillars. Instead of using steel rods to 1988: Glickman was Jewish, Polivka tried to obtain payment for his esin team with Wright column The district around the building reinforce the concrete, the architect has his father had been a rabbi, And never services but without result and later sketch design within ten site took on a holiday air as preparations perfected a steel mesh core "Iron met a person who possessed more of so- conceded, realising that it was a real ttending the presentation went ahead to test Wright's most recent rods in concrete represent the bones of called Christian virtues than he did honour to work for such a genius. to Herbert F. Johnson, contribution to architecture. Word of the a human foot. The steel mesh, however, After Glickman's death his heirs Polivka and Wright also worked on the the roll of drawings from trial had gone out to the building industry. plays the role of muscles and sinews. received a certificate: recognition of daring, reinforced concrete Butterfly- Edgar Tafel, and said, Representatives of steel and concrete Muscles and sinews are stronger than his contribution to the cause of organic wing Bridge project over the southern carries his own companies mingled with camera fans bones. The concrete flows in unison with architecture as an apprentice at Taliesin crossing of San Francisco Bay (1949). was started immediately waiting for a picture in case the column the steel mesh. It marries the mesh, and Frank Lloyd Wright's This was based on the cantilever beam a permit. The Industrial crumbled Mendel Glickman, Milwaukee so to speak," Wright explained Wright's only academic training was principle with a typical span of 156 feet would not accept the civil engineer, who checked the figures on Wright's students present at the in engineering and he understood and main spans of 500 and 1,000 feet.</p><p>44 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 45 JEFFERSON MEMORIAL ARCH Robert Maillart, Cement Hall, purpose of the design was to show the Eero Saarinen, Fred N. Severud, Zurich, 1938-1939 versatility of reinforced concrete as a Hannskarl Bandel, Jefferson The City of Zurich held a National building material. No such form had Memorial Arch, St Louis, 1947-1965 Exposition in 1939 and Maillart been built before. The two-rib stiffened By purchasing Louisiana from (1872-1940) was commissioned by parabolic barrel vault spanning 16 Napoleon in 1803 President Jefferson E.G. Portland, the cement research metres was constructed on wooden opened the way to the westward expan- group, to build an exhibit for them. In formwork by spraying concrete using a sion of the country, changing it from a a letter to his son Edmond, Maillart gunite process. Maillart was happy former colony into a leading interna- described the project as a 'small thing, with the outcome of rather daring tional force in the world. The point of which even so required much appearance' sitting on thin legs' departure to the west was St Lsuis, and Maillart made a cardboard model of and wrote to his son: 'Both technical to commemorate this historical event a the hall to check the form of the people and lay persons gazed at it in competition was held for a monument intended design. The design, a rein- astonished admiration!" In 1940, to be erected on the Mississippi river forced concrete shell only 60 after tests had been carried out, the bank. Eliel Saarinen and his son Eero millimetres thick, had two parts: a thin exhibit was demolished in Maillart's (1910-1961) each entered the contest upper barrel-arch and lower slanting presence. Explosives were not enough independently, and the telegram informing walls acting as cantilever beams. Two and grappling hooks had to be Eero of his victory was sent to his support ribs carrying the 11.7-metre attached to the columns and, by father by mistake. high vault were spaced either side of a tugging sideways at the structure, it Opposite: Eero This commission started Eero's connecting walkway and extended into was brought down. As it was wartime Fred architectural career. His design was an four small tapered columns, which took the reinforcing steel was salvaged to be Bandel arch clad in stainless steel of 192 Jefferson Memorial the weight of the whole structure. The reused in another St 1947-65 metres width and height, which when viewed from the opposite river bank would appear as a complete ring with its reflection in the water. The principal structural decision was the choice of a suitable profile for the Arch. In the absence of any lateral bracing the structure had to provide the full bending stiffness to resist the live load of the wind. This was provided by the hollow frame, a double walled triangle of welded steel plate reducing in dimensions towards the top with the spaces between the walls filled with concrete to increase the weight in the lower sections. The frame includes a five-person lift car located in each leg to transport visitors to the viewing room at the top. The Arch foundations extend 18 metres below the ground. The whole structure is built to withstand the force of earth- quakes and winds and can sway by up to 450 millimetres. The Museum of Robert Cement Hall, Zurich, Westward Expansion is sited at the bottom of the Arch.</p><p>46 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS - STRUCTURES 47 AND connected with When tensioned juxtaposition provides dimension - the dome assumed its form and the the basis of awareness of life legend was Kenneth Snelson, one Tension is comprehensive and the of the arts students at the 1948 universe is tensional integrity." summer school inspired by Buckminster Geodesic domes are frameworks Fuller's produced several made of rigid struts, each bearing sculptures using discontinuous compres- tension or The struts are sion and continuous tension elements, connected into triangles, pentagons or one by %-forms and thin hexagons, and each strut is arranged strands of cable. When he brought them to constrain each joint at a fixed position, back to show Buckminster Fuller the thus stabilising the In tenseg- next summer, his teacher was impressed rity structures all structural members and asked to keep the X-form are pre-stressed, and are in tension or Buckminster Fuller immediately saw the compression before being subjected to potential and subsequently an external Within the structure, named the concept Buck- the rigid struts stretch or tense the minster Fuller had incredible foresight flexible tension cables, while the tension and was able to adopt other people's members compress the The coun- ideas in combination with his own teracting forces equilibrate throughout research to expand his own the structure and stabilise it, in contrast Tensegrity was an important discovery with normal building structures that fifty years later, is only just being derive their stability from continuous applied and Buckminster compression due to the force of Fuller realised that, throughout the In tensegrity structures the tension universe, compression and tension members are arranged along the shortest are energetically Their routes between adjacent points and are Richard Richard Buckminster Fuller, Geodesic us College during the 1948 summer and Tensegrity Domes, 1948-1983 school. This was not the first geodesic 1967 'There are many ways of rendering dome; Walter Bauersfeld (1879-1959), geodesic structures, but all represent chief designer to Carl Zeiss in Jena, closed systems in which compression is built one in 1922. With his students, comprehensively encompassed by Buckminster Fuller created an experi- In principle, this emulates the mental dome with a 15-metre diameter structuring of the universe. 'In our using old venetian The blades geodesic structures, the surface of a were bolted together at the intersections sphere is interlaced by an omni-three of 31 great circles. This dome, later way grid of great circles, which always called 'Supine', could not support its uniquely intercept one another in such weight owing to the inadequate stiffness a manner that everywhere the surface of the A year later Buckminster areas described by the intersections are Fuller tried again, enclosing a college Buckminster Fuller project called the living (1895-1983) initially attempted a This time he used short lengths of geodesic dome at Black Mountain rigid aircraft duralumin tubing</p><p>48 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 49 THE SKYLON positioned to withstand stress. Scientist Philip Powell, Hidalgo Moya, Felix J. three cables at 120 degrees to each Donald Ingber wrote that tensegrity Samuely, The Skylon, other. The cable anchors were held from was nature's preferred building system, London, 1950-1951 horizontal movement by three reinforced confirming Buckminster Fuller's theory The Festival of Britain in 1951 injected concrete struts running to the central of the structure of the universe. much-needed pride and enthusiasm into foundation. Felix Samuely (1902-1959) According to Ingber, molecules are the British economy and nation, worried about the Skylon's vibration. structured geodesically. Tensegrity is exhausted after the Second World War. He pre-tensioned the supporting cables the most economical and efficient way The designs prepared for the show were and sent Frank Newby to check the to build at a molecular scale, at the exceptionally advanced for their time. strain gauges weekly. One night (every- macroscopic scale and at all scales in Especially outstanding were the Dome thing seems to happen in the middle of between. Evolutionary selection of of Discovery by Ralph Tubbs and Freeman the night for engineers) Newby and his fully triangulated tensegrity structures Fox and Partners and the team had to jack up the pylons to may have occurred because the struc- Powell (1921-) and Moya (1920-94) re-tension the cables. This was a fitting tural efficiency gives a high mechanical initially conceived the Skylon as a slim element of the exhibition representing strength using the minimum amount horizontal balloon, filled with helium optimism in the future and pointing the of materials while at the same time and anchored by two parallel wires, one way towards new developments in the being flexible and able to transform at each tip. Later the balloon was arts and sciences. into different shapes. A current theory turned vertically and made from satin After completing the De la Warr of the universe emulates the tensegrity finished aluminium panels. The body was Pavilion (1935) in Bexhill with Erich model as it is tensing outward 76 metres long and 4 metres in diameter Mendelsohn and Serge Chermayeff, containing gravitationally linked at its widest point. It was clad in 12 Samuely designed the first welded steel galaxies and black holes of large equal frames around its circumference. frame structure in London for Joseph compressive forces. The frames were made of steel angles Emberton's Simpson department store From 1959 Buckminster Fuller with rod cross bracing, bolted together (1936). Samuely placed two welded constructed domes applying the tensegrity on site. The 28.4 tonne weight of the plate girders at first and second floor principle using light aluminium alloy `vertical was supported at the level restrained at each end to form Below: Phillip tubing and aircraft control wires that bottom point by a system of three twin a rectangle at the supports. London Moya, enabled him to consider enclosures of Samuely, The Skylon, cables forming a The cables County Council, not acquainted with London, 1950-51 under vast areas of over 3 kilometres in passed over the tops of the 21.3 metre this type of construction, requested the diameter. He illustrated the capability high splayed pylons and down to the end restraints be removed after the of this structure by proposing to cover foundation anchorages. The three wind steelwork had been erected. This action fifty blocks of Manhattan Island with guy cables ran from the same points and weakened the design, 'the elegance of a tensegrity dome. were restrained at the pylon heads, Samuely's structure was quite negated', Above: Richard Buckminster Fuller designed large continuing upwards to the specially and riveted plate girders had to be Buckminster Fuller numbers of geodesic and tensegrity stiffened centre of the feature. The placed at every floor. Arup (left) and Kenneth Cross RIBA domes, perhaps the most successful cables were 60 millimetres in diameter. Architect Cedric Price admired in being the United States Pavilion at Expo The pylons were triangular in section Samuely and remembered him teaching '67 in Montreal, This was a 76-metre and were built up with rolled steel at the London Architectural diameter three-quarter sphere 41 metres angles at the three corners, joined by Association. Samuely - a well rounded high, using 90-millimetre diameter steel stiffeners and covered with sheet man in a dark blue suit - would do tubes to form a three-dimensional frame At the bases hydraulic jacks were enormous calculations on the black- of hexagonal and pentagonal compo- arranged to raise the pylons and tension board very quickly, and then he would nents rising from a 1-metre thick base the cable system after erection. The wipe everything out with the sleeve of gradually thinning to the top. The frame tension applied to the cables was calcu- this lovely suit and say, worry was covered with a skin of shaped lated so that at maximum wind velocity about that, I'll tell you a short-cut. acrylic The dome was the star of a certain amount of tension was still Simple supported beam you want the Expo '67 and one of Buckminster retained in each cable. This ensured that depth of it? Well, about a fifteenth of Fuller's finest achievements. at all times the body was restrained by a span.</p><p>50 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 51 CONVENTION HALL Above: Ludwig Mies Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, always insisted upon clear structural and cantilevered 60 feet at the corners. der Frank would come to their class and spend the Frank J. Kornacker, Convention Hall, Kornacker, Convention solutions for his While he was of the opinion that the majority of Right: Ludwig Mies Diagonal bracing extended from the mornings reviewing what they had done Project Chicago, Chicago, 1953-1954 Rohe, Frank J. outside edges of the three-dimensional during the week. atmosphere was structural The architectural historian Franz structural engineers "know nothing 860-880 Lake model 16 73 ceiling trusses and was brought down relaxed and the exchange of comments Schulze assessed this Chicago lake-front about structure but everything about Drive, Chicago, onto the columns. Cladding options and ideas flowed. About one o'clock, we project by Mies (1886-1969): None construction", he recognised his good consisted of black and green marble, would close shop and head down to a was so adventurous in its method or so fortune in having associated with the Below: Mies dev Frank J. tan, dark brown and black granite or Chinese restaurant in Chinatown not far bold in its expression of construction American engineer, Frank 860-880 Lake aluminium panels as infill between the from the campus and just south of the From within, the soaring roof must have Mies appreciated good engineering: Shore Drive, Chicago structural elements both as exterior and 1949-51, under construc- Loop. After lunch was ordered, Mies evoked awe all by itself, while its there are things that cannot be done interior The main hall floor would have his double Giblet drink and passage to the supporting trusses and without engineers. You cannot know was set 10 feet below the access level to by the end of lunch, the banter between columns was only more everything. think architects should increase the height of the enclosed Mies and Kornacker became more From without, the structure was no less understand more about engineering and volume. There was a 20-feet wide animated. They enjoyed and respected grandly readable, its identity with the engineers should know a little more arcade around the entire building each other. Kornacker reminisced about architecture Mies's ability to about architecture. The Hall was 720- perimeter. The maximum accommodation when contractors were driving piles for produce high art by what appeared the feet square in plan with an 85-feet was 50,000 seats. Arthur the columns at '860' Shore most uncompromisingly rational means internal height. To achieve a clear span curator of the Museum of Modern Art, Drive Apartments (1949-1951)] - was never manifest. Mies worked the roof structure was formed from described the Convention Hall project as a network of tunnels and roadways, on this project, his largest span structure, two-directional 30-feet deep steel the most monumental image of twentieth- ductwork, etc. crisscrossed below the with three IIT graduate students - girders with 14-inch flanges on a century Loop, or downtown Chicago, and Henry Kanazawa, Pao Chi Chang and 30-foot grid. The roof was supported Kanazawa recounts that while they extended south and north across the Yujiro Miwa - and his favourite along the perimeter by trusses 60 feet were working on the Convention Hall, Chicago River every which way. Aware structural engineer Frank J. Kornacker deep spanning 120 feet between on several Saturday mornings during of some existing culverts on the site, (1901-1975)." van der Rohe reinforced concrete column supports the school year, Mies and Kornacker and in spite of much mathematical</p><p>52 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 53 BRASILIA calculations, Kornacker was very much Frank Kornacker', to creak; it was on edge until the last piling was moving and it is still moving. Architect driven Jacques Brownson related a story Mies and Kornacker collaborated on about a party in the top apartment at all of Mies's projects in Chicago, which Kornacker and Ove Arup were including the Promontory Apartments present. 'A wild, violent storm came up. (1949), 50 50 House Project Those buildings are very light, and (1951-1952), the Crown Hall Kornacker was a very daring engineer, (1952-1956) and the rest of the IIT and the buildings were very flexible. In campus buildings. Mies also consulted the bathrooms you could watch the Kornacker on an alternative option for water sloshing back and forth Arup Above: Mies the New York Seagram (1954-1958) was playing something on the piano der Rohe, Frank & structure using a pure moment and he turns to Kornacker, and the Kornacker, Crown Hall, 1952-56, Kornacker, who had a small consultancy lightning was bombing. It was like Lucio Costa, Oscar Niemeyer, participated on these projects as a in Chicago, also worked on the being in Der Rosenkavalier Arup Joaquim Cardozo, Brasilia, structural engineer, together with the Above right: Mies engineering section of the Indiana was playing and he turns to Kornacker 1956-1964 landscape architect Roberto Burle van der Robe with Charles Genther of Pace Turnpike, part of the major east-west and he says, "Flexible, isn't Cardozo (or Cardoso, 1897-1978) was Marx, the painter Candido Portinari Associates and a contractor federal highway system, and taught a a poet, writer, teacher, architect and and the sculptor Alfredo during the 860-880 Lake Drive construction refresher course in structures to aspiring engineer not well known outside his The complex was built between 1940 architects in preparation for the licensing native In 1940 Oscar Niemeyer and 1943. The scheme had sculptural Right: Ludwig Mies van der Frank J examination. In the late 1950s was invited by Juscelino Kubitschek, at qualities of new forms and shapes with Hall, Kornacker worked as an in-house that time the mayor of Belo Horizonte, interplay of light and shade integrated Chicago, 1952-56, to design the Pampulha architectural with paintings, sculptures and land- Oscar structural drawing of the engineer for Bertrand Goldberg. Architect Ben Wesse remembers complex located in the area Niemeyer scape. The interiors were free-flowing National Congress Hall, climbing to the top of '860' during called 'an oasis in that beautiful provin- with curves, ramps and illusions created construction and how the wind coming cial city'. The development included the by mirrors. As a result of its innovative Above: Oscar Niemeyer, off the lake caused the steel frame, Casino, Ballroom Salon, Yacht Club and concept and iconography the Chapel did Joaquim National Congress designed by 'that very radical engineer, the Chapel of Sao Francisco de Assis not open until the late 1950s because part with several parabolic Cardozo at the time of its completion the church cross</p><p>54 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 55 PHILIPS PAVILION Le Corbusier, Yannis Xenakis, principle. To produce the right effects H.C. Duyster, C.G.J. Vreedenburgh, uniform curvature was not desired; the Philips Pavilion, Brussels, 1956-1958 inner surfaces had to be specifically In 1956 Le Corbusier (1887-1965), curved to receive light from divergent together with engineer and composer angles. The same design criteria were Xenakis (1922-2001), agreed to design also required for acoustics to avoid a pavilion for Philips for the 1958 Expo echoes and reverberations. To achieve the to be held in Initially his correct soundproofing Philips specified concept was to enclose a space of the walls to be 50 millimetres thick. The 'unconventional with a skin of pavilion was to have been constructed concrete on a metal mesh framework from a metal skeleton using the form of suspended on On the inner hyperbolic paraboloids generated by surfaces a film called Electronic Poem, straight lines in common with ruled a spectacle of light and sound, would be surfaces. This made it easier to specify projected. The performance would last the curvature of the skin and simplified about eight minutes and be attended by the calculations and In the 600-700 people. A pavilion space of end the contractor, N.V. Strabed, about 500 square metres was required proposed and built the complex pavilion with entrance and exit The final as a self-supporting pre-stressed concrete design was based on the ruled surface shell authorities considered it a pagan attack (1958-1960) whose large volume with on Christianity. horizontal roof had to express the half under Cardozo enjoyed his collaboration spherical form hovering above the with Niemeyer who frequently used ground plane. Several types of concrete rounded shapes that expressed aero shell were considered to satisfy the dynamic forms, giving a feeling of light- design concept. Finally Cardozo phoned ness and creating a dynamic effect. For Niemeyer: 'Oscar, I got the tangent that Cardozo the form of buildings was the is going to allow the construction of main beauty of a free-spanning dome just like Cardozo was also part of the team you wanted it! All other structural that designed and built Brasilia between elements were designed to minimum 1956 and 1964. The new capital city profiles to emphasise lightness and was commissioned by Kubitschek when elegance, such as the perimeter columns he became the President of Brazil in to the President's Palace (1957-1959) 1956. Cardozo acted as the project and the Metropolitan Cathedral leader and structural engineer for all (1959-1970). In the 1980s Niemeyer Right Le Yannis the major buildings. There were several collaborated with structural engineer difficult periods, including the design for Jose Carlos Sussekind whose contribu- the National Congress Hall tion, according to Niemeyer, was flawless. 1956-58</p><p>56 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 57 OPERA HOUSE Jorn Utzon, Ove Arup & Partners, design submitted for the Sydney that Utzon (1918-) realised that. To Opera House, Sydney, 1956-1973 Opera House competition without a prior make the construction possible, he had Engineers can be misled by architects' and thorough engineering consultation. to find rigorous mathematical setting design aesthetics and ideas when struc- Ultimately almost any design can be out for the shells and their tile covering. ture is subordinated to architectural ends. made to stand but in some cases it The shells' forms were eventually Some architects see engineers as tools demands vast effort, as was the case described as surfaces derived from the to achieve their own goals rather than with this project. However, this was still geometry of a sphere with a 75-metre as equal collaborators, and engineers the most attractive proposition. It was radius. Since 1958 the design, in intensive can feel robbed of their sensibility and Eero Saarinen who pulled out Utzon's collaboration with the Ove Arup & obligations to society and feel that they design from the pile of schemes discarded Partners team including Ove Arup are 'being led into the by for technical reasons and persuaded (1895-1988), Ronald Jenkins and Jack architects. 'As engineers our dilemma is fellow members of the selection committee Zunz, moved through the following a real one, particularly in the modern to award it the first prize. options: the original single skin rein- world where so much building design is For political reasons construction forced concrete shells; a parabolic architect led. We don't want to be party started before a structural solution for scheme with single skin shells with ribs; to designs which are our the roof shells was determined. The double skin shells with ribs; an ellipsoid consciences, nor should we be party to design progressed through several scheme with steel space frame and structures which we do not consider to be stages before the final solution was concrete skin; an in-situ and stable and appropriately Such found. The competition scheme had no reinforced concrete option; a circular were engineers' reactions to Utzon's true geometry and it was only in 1961 are rib scheme in a steel space frame Left: Ove with reinforced concrete skin; a prec Arup & Partners, Opera reinforced concrete ribs proposal. House, 1956-73 Finally, in 1961, the spherical schem with in-situ and precast reinforced concrete structure was amended to built solution of a small circle ridge profiles with great circle rib profiles precast reinforced concrete partially cast in-situ. The decision to make all shell profiles part of the same sphere became the project's salvation. Each half shell was a triangle cut from th same sphere, these segments were composed of fans of triangular-secti hollow arched ribs. One rib differed from another by the length of the 'The outer surface was divided up in set of regular, chevron-shaped tile</p><p>58 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 59 CHAPEL LOMAS DE a Carlos Aduanas Vallejo, Bottom Carlos Felix Candela, Warehouse rmo Rosell, Manuel Larrosa, equilibrium in shells and in other struc- Candela, Chapel, Lomas de tures and this nearly always meant avaca, Morelos, 1958-1959 symmetry. The congregation enters hapel is a saddle-shaped, rein- through a large opening and pray in concrete shell sunk into a low tiers facing a rear shell opening. The and contrasts with an adjacent opening casts light into the chapel and tapered cross also in concrete onto the altar and allows views along d in the broad valley of Cuer- the valley. The shell section geometry This is an exposed site and wind describes a single hyperbolic paraboloid are considerable and influenced lamina reducing towards the ground. ructural design. Candela Because of the large front opening at -1997) aimed to achieve structural the lower lip points, interior compressive stresses were heavy, and the shell had Candela resolved this to be thickened and doubly reinforced. choosing the right spa The wind forces dictated a need for a shallow vault in prope compression rib running along the lip. wing cantilevers sittin The chapel and the landscape form a columns. The column perfect harmony, creating a stunning related to the artistic composition. on it. The columns Another impressive project, considered the 40-millimetre vau by some as Candela's most beautiful ties from the 50-milli structure, was the Aduanas Warehouse cantilevers and the in Vallejo (1953-1954, architecture by building was describe Carlos Recamier). This building indicated A fusion of aesthetics the importance of the consideration of criteria occurs and th the shells' support off the ground. of art.</p><p>Right Space Structure Hangar for US Air Konrad Wachsmann, Space Structure, 1959 Wachsmann (1901-1980) was the master of prefabrication and space In 1959 he was asked by the US Air Force to design a demountable system for large aircraft hangars, which suited his interest in industrialised production methods. Inspired by Alexander Graham Bell's pioneering tetrahedral space frames developed at the beginning of the 20th century, Wachsmann used a constant tetrahedral module made out of 10-feet long tubes connected with three-dimensional swivel nodes allowing the attachment of up to 20 members. This principle allowed every possible combination of construc- tion and All the building elements could be prefabricated by mass production The brief stipulated that the structure had to be cantilevered all around the outside to avoid any perimeter For the top and bottom chords of the space frame large diameter tubes were specified with smaller diameter interconnecting members. The space frame roof structure was cantilevered by 150 feet either side and supported on tetrahedrons and pyramid bases located at 120-feet The sequence would have required only cranes and no The complete structure expressed a new dynamic spatial experience on an heroic scale and indicated how far-reaching a simple idea could</p><p>62 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 63 MARINA CITY Bertrand Goldberg, Frank plastic expression and the most core 588 feet high. The walls varied in J. Kornacker, E. Weinberg, economical method for shell construction. thickness from 30 to 12 Outside Fred N. Severud, Hannskarl Bandel, The President of the International the core there were two 16-column Marina City, Chicago, 1959-1964 Union of the Building Services Employees rings taking most of the vertical load. Goldberg (1913-1997) was an ideal wanted to house his members close to The inner ring of rectangular columns designer, qualified as both an architect their work locations and with this brief and an outer ring of diamond-shaped and an engineer. He studied at Goldberg fulfilled his dream of columns carried 16 radial beams span- Bauhaus, Dessau and Berlin and lishing urban communities with linked ning from the core to the perimeter. The worked there for Mies van der Rohe. transportation, housing, work and recre- caisson foundations went down 110 feet Until the 1950s his career and The Marina City tower plan, a below the adjacent Chicago River designs were influenced by Mies and component of community, was based on through soft clays and abandoned Buckminster Fuller. Then he rebelled a flower, a Japanese lotus pattern, to small-gauge railroad tunnels to rock. against static space, straight line and form a number of residential capsules As the interest on invested finances towers there was a 16-storey office chief engineer in Bertrand Goldberg machine architecture. Goldberg wanted attached to a central core that carried was high the length of the construction building, a 1,700-seat theatre, a 700- Associates. Goldberg valued Kornacker's to give more clarity to function. He all the services, lifts and stairs. The period had to be kept to the boat marina, an exhibition hall, an ability to find practical and innovative proposed that 'function created form', cylindrical form had a number of inherent For speed of erection Linden climbing open-air year-round ice skating rink, structural concepts, ideas and details, and his structures were to be economies including the highest ratio of tower crane was used which enabled bowling alleys, an indoor swimming and held him in the highest Fred Goldberg discovered reinforced usable floor space to the exterior casting of one level of core per day and pool, a health club, restaurants, shops N. Severud acted as the project struc- concrete shell-form architecture and cladding, and the form minimised the one floor slab level every other day. and parking. tural analyst. Before Kornacker became wanted to provide multi-functional, wind loading on the Marina Marina City was the first all-electric For Goldberg the Marina City towers involved with Marina City, Goldberg had open and mobile communities. City was the tallest reinforced concrete building and only cold water, electricity, were symbols of community living and wanted to cantilever the floors from the you create a building you think of a residential towers of their time, located drainage and telephone cables were working, a self-sufficient urban environ- central core. Severud discouraged him structure, but when you create a on three plaza levels with 16 cylindrical supplied through the cores. ment for the future, city within a because the risks were too great. 'He community, you think of a series of ramp levels of parking and 40 levels of The three-acre site occupied a whole The scheme was designed by Gold- said, "It might work, but you're doing so forces reacting with each residential Each tower city block with a major five-building berg and engineered by Frank J. many things that are for the first time, Concrete was the best material for was built with a 32-foot inside diameter complex. As well as 896 apartment Komacker, who at that time was the save that for the second</p><p>Gehron & Lev Zetlin, structure. Zetlin used two intercon- Memorial Auditorium, Utica, 1960 nected inner tension rings to form a Zetlin's (1918-1992) design for the hub. The upper and lower hub rings are circular suspension roof for the Memorial placed above and below the level of the Auditorium was based on a bicycle perimeter compression ring. Cables are wheel concept of two paired layers of stretched in two sets from the outer ring pretensioned steel cables stretched with spreader struts placed vertically between a reinforced concrete compres- between the sets of cables putting them sion perimeter ring and a steel tension in tension. Self-damping is built into the centre ring. The span was 250 feet. This cable system by two sets of cables that solution is a variation of a dish roof have different tensions. Any applied load increases the tension in one set and Above: Gehron & Memorial reduces it in the other. In this way the 1960, two sets of cables always have different roof natural The dish surface is Right Gehron & defined by the lower set of cables but Lev Memorial the roof panels are supported on the aerial upper cables, forming a dome surface and allowing for the disposal of Another interesting Zetlin structure was the 1,000-foot Flexurally Controlled Tower project (1974) in Milwaukee that used automatically controlled stressing tendons. Architect Philip Johnson worked with Zetlin on the New York State Pavilion at the 1964 World's Fair, New York, also called the of The Pavilion had a 250 by 320 feet cable suspension roof hung from sixteen 100-feet tall reinforced concrete columns. Johnson described Zetlin as 'the best engineer I ever had - exciting, imaginative and reliable, a combination hard to get' ST ELEVATION</p><p>66 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 67 AVIARY Kenzo Tange, Yoshikatsu Tsuboi, spiralling roof light, was clad internally Mamoru Kawaguchi, Olympic in timber. Swimming Pool Arena and Olympic Tange and Tsuboi worked together on Boxing and Basketball Arena, Ehine Prefectural Hall (1952) with an Tokyo-Yoyogi, 1961-1964 inclined shallow spherical shell roof, Inspired by Nowicki's Raleigh Arena, Le Hiroshima Children's Library (1953) Corbusier's Philips Pavilion and Saari- with an inverted cone shell roof, nen's Hockey Rink, Tange (1913-) with Shizuoka Sumpu Kaikan Hall (1958- engineers Tsuboi (1907-1990) and 1960) with a hyperbolic paraboloid shell Kawaguchi (1932-) designed two roof and St Mary's Cathedral, Tokyo arenas with concave suspension roofs. (1962-1965) that had eight hyperbolic Above: Yutaka Murata, The larger arena, based in plan on two paraboloid shell walls. Expo part circles shifted along their axis, had Kawaguchi praised Tsuboi, his teacher 1970 a stretched roof skin suspended from a and collaborator, for his approach to central cable installation attached to structures. Tsuboi endeavoured to keep Cedric Price, Frank Newby, Anthony two concrete masts. A prestressed steel his mathematical expressions elegant Armstrong-Jones (Lord Snowdon), net with welded steel plates was at every analytical stage; he always Zoo Aviary, London, 1961-1964 anchored at the bottom into a sweeping pursued elegance as a researcher, It was Snowdon with architect reinforced concrete support system. The designer and teacher. Kawaguchi's other Price (1934-) and engineer Newby roof had a streamlined form to avoid structures were the pneumatic Fuji (1926-2001) who designed the new the effects of high winds. Special Pavilion at 1970 Expo at Osaka with Aviary for the London Zoo. Newby devices were used such as rotary saddles, Yutaka Murata, the lattice dome of worked from a design brief prepared by universal joints and oil The Palau Sant Jordi Sports Hall Price and sketched a scheme based on smaller arena, with a circular plan, had (1984-1990) in Barcelona with Arata the tensegrity concept, which he had a suspended roof held by a single Isozaki, and the space frame Osaka learned from Buckminster Fuller in cantilevered mast. The roof, with a Sports Centre (1996) with Syowa Sekkei. 1953. Three-sided pyramids or tetrahe- drons line to a skeleton of poles, with paired diagonal sheer legs at either end and all are wrapped in a giant net skin. The structural members are made from aluminium castings and tubes, stainless- steel forgings, wire cables and welded aluminium Newby described the Aviary as an early example of high tech- nology but not high-tech. Interestingly, the cables were pre-tensioned so they could carry Snowdon remembered being petrified that some- thing would go wrong at the public Tange, unveiling. On the press evening he Yoshikatsu thought his worst nightmare had come Mamora Olympic Arenas, true when he saw a bird whose beak was bent around the mesh of the Aviary. Above: Kenzo Cedric Snowdon ran over to tell the curator, Yoshikatsu Frank Newby, Tony but when the curator saw the bird he Mamoru Kawaguchi, (Lord Zoo said: 'Tony - you fool - this species of Olympic London, bird is supposed to have a bent</p><p>69 CABLE NET GERMAN EXHIBITION PAVILION 66 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES Myron Goldsmith, Alfred Picardi, room. An independent concrete tower Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, Solar braced by steel trusses sheathed in a Telescope, Kitt Peak, Arizona, 1962 liquid cooled copper cladding painted Goldsmith (1918-1996) studied archi- white to reduce solar absorption tecture at the IIT, graduating in 1939. supports the heliostat. The arrangement His training also allowed him to of the cladding form reduces wind practise as an engineer. He worked for turbulence. Mies van der Rohe after the war until Another project by Goldsmith, this 1953, and later in Europe with Nervi time with Chinese engineer Tung-Yen and Bruno Zevi. For his masters thesis Lin (1912-), was the Ruck-a-Chucky at the IIT he studied tall building design Bridge at Auburn (1978). The bridge in prestressed concrete with columns spanned 1,300 feet with a curving deck placed outside the building envelope and in plan cantilevered from abutments, expressed external diagonal wind supported by high-strength steel cables bracing. Goldsmith joined SOM in 1955. anchored to the mountainside and Goldsmith's Solar Telescope was an arranged in a hyperbolic paraboloid interesting design built to complement formation to create an array of tensile the top of a hill setting as well as being forces producing pure axial compression in contrast to its natural The in the deck. For Lin, bridges expressed structure had to be built to minimum the elegance of natural forces and the deflection criteria for wind and thermal Ruck-a-Chucky Bridge exemplified this. effects to preserve the alignment of the The forces ran along the curve, there optical tunnel. A heliostat with a 60-inch was no shear and no torsion, and Left: diameter mirror carries the sun's reflec- moments were Lin Cable Net explained: solution required six German Expo tion along a 500-feet, sloping, months of analysis and a moment Montreal, 1965-67 reinforced concrete shaft via redirecting mirrors to an underground observation of insight. Rolf Gutbrod, Frei Otto, Cable Net from 14 to 38 metres, and brought sional net distortion. The advantage of Roof, German Exhibition Pavilion, down at three low points where the skin developable net is that it can be prefab- Above: Myron Goldsmith, was drawn in a funnel form to the ricated off site, easily transported, Montreal, 1965-1967 Chucky Bridge Project, Auburn, The Expo '67 theme 'Terre des ground. The 140 by 120 metre roof was assembled on the ground, connected to Hommes' gave Otto (1925-) and a prestressed steel cable network with the supporting system and raised into Right Myron an underslung skin made of translucent the final position and prestressed. The Gutbrod (1910-1999) inspiration for Alfred Solar PVC coated polyester fabric. Otto developable Montreal roof net was Telescope, Kitt creating a series of landscapes that merged into their A net roof was inspired by the transparency of made of 12-millimetre diameter patent the spider's web and the strength of the galvanised cast-steel cable and 54- concept was envisaged as a canopy covering the man-made terrain. fisherman's The principle of the millimetre diameter cable was used for The structural arrangement defined shape of a structure defined by a net is the edge and main supporting cables. the three main parts of the design: the where the spatial coordinates of a finite Otto's virtuosity in lightweight set of net intersections fix its structures added new architectural sculpted earth platform, the raised deck A developable net is one that can be expression to buildings with dynamic, of the exhibition terraces and the free severed from its boundaries and laid sweeping profiles and forms not net roofscape raised on eight galvanised out on a plane surface without dimen- seen before. tubular steel masts, of varying length</p><p>70 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 71 DRY COOLING SCHMEHAUSEN NUCLEAR POWER PLANT Above: Piano & Rogers, Piano & Rogers, Ove Arup & gerberette solution invented by German Arup & Partners Joerg Schlaich, Dry Cooling Tower, Partners, Centre National d'Art Georges engineer Heinrich Gerber (1832-1912), Schmehausen Nuclear Power Plant, Centre, Paris, et de Culture Georges Pompidou, who used this structural option for 1974 Paris, 1971-1977 bridge designs such as the Hassfurth Joerg Schlaich (1934-) researched the The Pompidou Centre architecture, Bridge (1866-1867), the oldest metal designed by Renzo Piano (1937-), impact of advanced building technology cantilever bridge in the world. At the on electricity cooling Richard Rogers (1933-) and Ove Arup Pompidou Centre double boom beams & Partners including Peter Rice towers have to be substantially taller were connected to cast steel than wet cooling towers: indeed, the (1935-1992), was inspired by the gerberettes, which in turn were slotted projects of Archigram, a group taller they are, the greater their efficiency. over and pinned to 800-millimetre of visionary architects. It had to be a Construction technology at the time, diameter The columns were flexible building used for a range of however, meant it was not possible to centrifugally cast to achieve an build the very tall cooling towers - cultural activities: a library, museum, increased wall thickness towards the exhibition space, research centre, possibly more than 300 metres high - bottom without increasing the overall cinema, theatre and music hall. These that would make the change to dry The ends of the gerberettes cooling truly effective. The tallest rein- requirements, which Piano called were connected with solid round ties place open to every blowing wind', were forced concrete cooling towers rarely attached to ground anchors. The exceed a height of 150 metres and were best satisfied by placing all the mechan- gerberettes both visually and function- ical plant and people movers to the already brilliant achievements of build- ally clarified the transmission of the outer zones of the building. This ing technology If dry cooling was to horizontal and vertical elements and, arrangement called for a clear span of be achieved economically, a different with their cantilever action, enabled the 44.8 metres with 6-metre outer perimeter method of construction was required. main trusses' load to be transferred zones, which had to be enclosed After considerable study, the structural down the axis of the columns without This was the brief from the system found to offer the greatest possi- inducing large bending moments. A architects. One of the Arup's team bilities was the tensioned cable net. In a nineteenth-century structural idea using suggested a suspended beam on a short Right small prototype constructed at the cast structural elements solved a twen- Solar Chimney propped cantilever, the so-called Schmehausen nuclear power station, tieth-century architectural masterpiece. Manzanares, 1982 steel cable netting was suspended from</p><p>73 72 ARCHITECTS Left History of 1988-89 tower struc- Dry cooling Power Nuclear 1974.</p><p>Left: Troja Bridge, Jiri Strasky, Stress-Ribbon Bridges, next generation of structural engineers. Czech Republic, 1979-2001 In 1967, a footbridge with a 40-metre Strasky (1946-) is the foremost expert span over a motorway was built in in designing and constructing 'blades of Bircherweid, Switzerland with others at light', pedestrian bridges that span with- Osaka (1968), Freiburg (1970), out visible means of support. The Lignon-Loex (1971) and Bournemouth concept of these bridges is based on the (1974). Strasky studied and worked in old willow rope and iron chain bridges, the Czech Republic and was captivated a number of which are still in use in the by the stress-ribbon concept. While Himalayas and Central and South working for Dopravni stavby, America. These designs blend into the he designed nine stress-ribbon bridges, a compression ring, 92 metres in diam- netting, the rotational paraboloid landscape with minimal visual disruption building seven of them between 1979 eter, which was itself attached by shape - the optimum functional form and have low environmental impact and 1985. a radial cable system to the top of a for a cooling tower - literally falls into using only small amounts of materials, Strasky has recently participated in central, 181-metre high concrete mast. place. Once the rigid panels are allowing easy construction without the building of a pedestrian stress- The web of cables in the cable net was attached, the overall structural effect causing disturbance to the environment ribbon bridge with a 127-metre span at held in tension by a second compression is of a stiff membrane, extremely below the bridge, and requiring virtually Redding, California (1996), designed ring, 141 metres in diameter, at ground lightweight, yet far stronger than exist- no The disadvantages are with Charles Redfield, two Horizon Club level. Two intermediate compression ing concrete shells. Also, being the comparatively high cost of the stress-ribbon bridges with 87-metre rings, securely tied back to the central constantly under tension, there are substantial anchoring needed at the spans at San Diego, California (1998), mast, were required to ensure the fewer problems with stability and, in abutments and the natural sag of the designed with McDaniel Engineers, a integrity of the parabolic shape in high theory, there are no boundaries to its deck which produces slopes towards 77-metre span bridge across the Blue wind conditions. Finally, steel cladding possible dimensions. abutments or River, Colorado (1998), designed by Jim panels were fixed to the netting and In 1982 Schlaich conceived a In modern times the first stress- Nolen in collaboration with Charles their joints sealed to create an airtight 200-metres high, 10-metre diameter ribbon bridge was proposed by German Redfield, and a footbridge in Oregon Faced with the simplicity cable-stayed Solar Chimney Prototype engineer Ulrich Finsterwalder across the Rough River at Grants Pass of this system, it is remarkable that with glass collector roof and vertical (1897-1988), employed by Dyckerhoff (1999), with 73-, 85- and 43-metre cooling towers continue to be built in axis turbine at Manzanares, which & Widmann, for bridging the Bosporus spans designed in collaboration with reinforced concrete, with all the labori- converted solar radiation into electricity Straits in 1958. The bridge with 396-, OBEC, Consulting Engineers. ous and complex internal supports that by creating hot air upwind driving 408- and 396-metre spans was never With architect Cezary Bednarski, that system With cable a built but became an inspiration for the Strasky also designed a stress-ribbon</p><p>77 STRESS-RIBBON BRIDGES 76 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES Left: Jin load test of Nymburk Below: Charles Redfield Rough River Grants Pass, bridge over the Medway River at Maid- post-tensioned by prestressing cables stone (1999-2001), with 49.5- and that are placed with the bearing cables 37.5-metre spans and an unusual within the cast-in slab. In this case the cranked alignment. continuous jointless slab provides Stress-ribbon bridges, whose maximum protection for the cables, which require clear span is 150 metres, can be no further The end bridge is the outcome of its geometric in the While in service the stress- Above: constructed in either cast in-situ or in sections of the bridge are constructed stiffness. These structures resist not ribbon is stressed not only by normal Bednarski Maidstone 1999 precast concrete units. For the on elastomeric bearings situated on the only uniformly distributed loads but forces but also by bending moments. The structures the deck is put together in abutments allowing the deck to move as also large concentrated loads. shape and the stress of the structure at segments that are suspended on bearing temperature changes. At the abutments Static function and the construction the end of construction determine the cables and moved to their final position. there are anchorage blocks, which are process determine the structural stresses that originate in the structure After the casting of the joints between connected to the deck by arrangement. when in Significant bending the units the post-tensioning is applied At intermediate piers the deck is During construction the structure moments originate only at the supports. with another set of prestressing cables strengthened and forms concrete acts as a flexible cable. The deck Bending moments due to the point load placed in the ducts within deck to give it saddles that are cast in the formwork between the supports has the shape of that represent loading by maintenance sufficient rigidity. Precast segments with and hung on adjacent segments. The a catenary. From an economic point vehicles are relatively low. Since the a composite slab are also used. The saddles are frame-connected with the of view the sag should be as large as deck is always post-tensioned, the segments are suspended on bearing In the latest designs short possible but for use and aesthetics the negative bending moments at the cables and act as formwork for casting haunches are also designed at the sag should be To achieve supports are also very low. Positive the composite slab simultaneously with connection of the stress ribbon with the smaller sag a greater force is required bending moments are very large and the joints. The whole structure is anchor blocks. The resistance of the</p><p>78 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS - STRUCTURES 79 INMOS MICROCHIP FACILITY Richard Rogers and Partners, trusses were supported by tension stays Anthony Hunt Associates, from the tops of double cross-braced, Inmos Microchip Facility, lattice-column spine towers. Simple Newport, 1980-1982 lattice steel trusses bridged the 13- Inmos, the manufacturer of microchips, metre length between the main trusses required a flexible, adaptable, column- and supported 6-metre long steel free The architects and decking installed with insulation and engineers devised a linear concept that a waterproof membrane. The choice of could expand indefinitely either side of tension structures had the advantage the central spine, a 7.2-metre wide of the effectiveness of pin-joints in street. The first phase of construction transferring forces. Components could consisted of 20 equal bays. The south be made off site to tight tolerances, side accommodated a restaurant and as no site welding was required. The administration. On the north side of the external walls consisted of a system of 106-metre long spine were the clean- standardised mullions that carried a room production areas. The main variety of infill panels allowing flexibility structure was formed from prefabricated and future alteration. elements allowing rapid construction. The building clearly expressed the The frame was a tubular steel, assisted- architecture and structure without span tension structure. The 36-metre deceiving the user or visitor and had a spanning triangulated lattice steel powerful presence. have a significant influence on the trucks weighing up to 24 tonnes and Above: arrangement of the structure at the `bounced' by people, rocket engines and Charles Redfield Redding Bridge, supports. Stress-ribbon structures mechanical exciters after under construction Above: Richard Rogers have low natural frequencies and low These tests reassured the public and and Anthony Hunt Inmos damping and therefore it is necessary to confirmed that these structures could Microchip Facility check their response to loading by not be overstressed by excessive 1980-82 Tony sketches people and Natural frequencies vibrations and that their behaviour was have to be determined and additional within the internationally recommended Right: Richard Rogers and Partners, Anthony excited vibrations resulting from limits of comfort perception. These Hunt Associates, Inmos movement need to be As this slender structures exploit the natural Microchip Facility structure is long and shallow its stability behaviour of modern materials combined has to be checked under dynamic wind with the latest technology resulting in load by studies. elegant, natural, unbellevable bridging All the bridges designed by Strasky expression that complements the beauty were tested and loaded with heavy of landscape or urban settings.</p><p>81 WATERLOO INTERNATIONAL TERMINAL 80 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES Opposite and below: Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners, to Paris and Brussels, The 400-metre Nicholas Grimshaw and Anthony Hunt Associates, Waterloo long roof consisted of 36 arches of Partners, Anthony varying spans, the closest to Waterloo International Terminal, International London, 1986-1993 being 55 metres and the shortest at the London, The design of the new terminal was led terminal entrance of 35 Each by Nicholas Grimshaw (1939-) and arch was made from two prismatic Nicholas Grimshaw and Partners, Tony Hunt The difficult form bowstring trusses connected at a central Anthony Associates, of the site and the five-platform config- knuckle joint. The larger truss, located International on the eastern side, had two telescoping, 1986 uration determined the structure of this Tony Hunt's sketches railway terminal for the Eurostar service hollow compression booms on its upper of the first scheme face and a single smaller solid tension showing the exposed outer steelwork. bar beneath to stop the truss spreading The severe constraints of the site helped under load. Due to asymmetric arch to generate novel architecture and profile, the small truss was reversed, structure continuing the tradition of with two tension rods forming the outer innovative British railway sheds that chord with a single, internal compression began in the nineteenth century in The tops of the larger trusses were London with King's Cross (Lewis sheathed in glass and stainless steel Cubitt, Paddington (I.K. cladding while the smaller trusses were Brunel 1852-1854) and St Pancras fully glazed on the inside of the chords (W.H. Barlow, 1863-1868)</p><p>82 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 83 TORRE DE COLLSEROLA The concept Matthew Wells, Tim views through the interiors as well as farlane, Glass Staircases, vertical vistas to spaces below and on, 1987-1995 above are created. Jiricna's stairs are (1939-) is a master of modern functional structural sculptures, care- stair design. Her stairs, straight fully calculated and prepared in is or circular, have become the cooperation with structural engineers. The future mark of her interiors. The delicate, The glass treads are designed for the -like detailing produces objects safest use. Each tread, for example, is MAX freedom here nded in space as focal points to two-ply, with the bottom layer in ateriors mimicking the effectiveness perspex to prevent it from falling in the earning crystal chandeliers used in unlikely event of glass failure. Jiricna's ast. By using glass as the main stairs are almost invisible strands ent of the design, unobstructed threading through the interior Foster Associates, Ove Arup & adopting the mast idea the Torre has a Above left: Foster Partners, MC-2 Julio Martinez main structural element with a 4.5- Arup Partners, Julio Calzon, Torre de Collserola, metre This hollow, slip-formed Martinez de Barcelona, 1988-1992 reinforced concrete tube has a wall In May 1988, Norman Foster (1935-) thickness varying from 750 millimetres together with Chris Wise (1956-) of at the base to 300 millimetres at the Foster Associates Ove Arup & Partners won an interna- top. The radio mast reduces from a Ove Arup & Julio Martinez tional competition for Barcelona's diameter of 2.7 metres to 0.7 de 'monumental technological The central tube is stiffened by three a telecommunications tower at prestressed trusses working in the same Foster's sketch 440 metres above the way as yacht mast rigging by putting it The final tower design was 288 metres in compression. Three splayed pairs of tall with the requirement of the public guys, which are prestressed and able to gallery, with unobstructed all-round carry compression if necessary, keep views. The tower concept is based on a the tower The lower 320- mast restrained by three pairs of guy millimetre diameter trussing cables are This page: Eva A conventional tower of this made of parallel-strand steel and pass Matthew Wells, glass height would have demanded a core of to the top of the tower over intermediate cases at least 25 metres in diameter but by outriggers. The upper section strands</p><p>84 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 85 TRINITY BRIDGE consist of fibre rope to prevent inter- ference with communication signals. The whole system is highly tensioned to put the concrete mast into compres- The 12-storey tower accommodation section was built on the ground and raised into its 85-metre high position. For Norman Foster the only constant is change and the tower was a new symbol, the realisation of a new age and the visualisation of the future. The architectural and primarily the structural design, as such never tried in this application, gave maximum freedom to the base of the tower and liberated it in defiance of gravity. Santiago Calatrava, Buro Happold, The Trinity Bridge spans 60 metres Above: Dennis Sharp, Trinity Bridge, across the river Irwell, providing a Buro Dennis Share Trinity Salford, 1993-1995 pedestrian connection between Salford Bridge, Right: Foster Associates, Calatrava (1951-) likes to explore the and The white asymmetric Anthony Associates limits of tension and compression. His cable-stayed bridge is cantilevered Saimbury Centre for the sculptures and models reflect the delicate from the Salford bank from a single Visual 1974-77 balance that can be achieved by arranging 41-metre high steel pylon support. objects in a static system where the Stainless steel tension stay cables Above: Foster Anthony Hurt Associates forces of tension and compression act carry the deck, splitting into two Sainsbury Centre for the in parallel. He often tries to employ ramps on the Salford approach. The Visual Norman the same structural techniques in his pylon is placed at a 62-degree angle sketch and Tony architecture. His designs are sculptural and this inclination enhances the and his structure is organic: weight of the pylon acting as a structure is determined, in part, by the counter-force in the composition. The demands of movement, which leads us to geometric arrangement of the return moveable As engineers we anchorage cables reinforces the design understand the problem of dynamics as intention. For Calatrava the freedom one of frequency of vibrations, but of the bridge design lies in a precise dynamics can also be part of the form study of the static system and the and a component of twentieth-century correct arrangement of the materials art, as in mobiles. In some of my experi- according to their properties. Cala- ments, I have tried to introduce a trava looks to nature for collapsible or dynamic element into the his architecture and engineering design system in order to give another order of are organic and related to the form of architectural expression to the the human body.</p><p>86 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS STRUCTURES 87 LORD'S MEDIA CENTRE Future Systems, Ove Arup & placed within the sweeping curves of the Partners, Lord's Media Centre, Lord's Cricket Jan Kaplicky London, 1994-1999 (1937-) explained: always thought The NatWest Media Centre is the first about it as a "camera" overlooking the all-aluminium, semi-monocoque building site and having that as its object. We structure in the Yet again tried to make minimal impact. Marylebone Cricket Club selected an The form of the building was deliber- ultra modern architectural design for ately chosen to reduce its visual volume, their site. In previous years innovative to allow the perception of space designers Michael Hopkins, Nicholas between the two adjacent stands and Grimshaw and David Morley were the view beyond to the Nursery Ground chosen to build grandstands and cricket and produce something other than a schools, and for the Media Centre the traditional A boat-like structure avant-garde designers Future Systems and construction approach conceived in emerged as winners from a competition theory was realised in practice by held in 1994. Their inspiration was 'an employing the Pendennis Shipyard in artificial eye on the the imagery Cornwall to manufacture it. The 40 by of a modern single reflex camera form 20 metre semi-monocoque structure This page: Future Anthony Hunt West India Dock consists of a self-supporting external with a yacht specification build-up of Above: Future skin reinforced by internal ribs made white paint. The structure is without Ove Arup & Partners, Lord's Media Centre, out of aluminium, a non-corrosive, movement joints and recyclable metal. Its strength-to-weight This approach indicates the designers' ratio results in a highly efficient struc- open-minded inspiration with other tural material. The shell of the building technologies and their ability to transfer consists of 6- to 12-millimetre thick them to building construction, bringing metal plate made in 26 sections of up new methods and ideas into architec- to 4.5 by 20 metres size, manufactured ture. This is what Future Systems do off site, transported by road, craned into with all their projects, always standing position and bolted and welded together at the forefront of architectural and to form a continuous surface finished structural</p><p>88 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES 89 BRITISH AIRWAYS LONDON EYE David Marks, Julia Barfield, Babtie Allott & Lomax, Hollandia, British Airways London Eye, London, 1995-2000 For the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, Charles Ferris designed a revolving 250- feet diameter observation wheel powered by two 1,000 horsepower engines. It had 36 wooden cars each holding 60 people suspended from the 825-feet long wheel For the 1995 London Millennium Landmark competition, architects Marks and Barfield came up with the idea of a modern observation wheel, a monument that would provide a memorable experi- ence for the Their design produced the biggest observation wheel with a cantilevered rim with capsules fixed outside the rim to obtain unob- structed The 135-metre diameter wheel has its outer rim linked to a central hub with tensioned cables. The Above: Lifschutz Lifschutz Davidson, Matthew Wells The truss is supported at each end on hub runs on bearings around a fixed Matthew Wells (Techniker), Pedestrian Bridge, twin The bridge structure, using spindle, which is driven by a motor with Pedestrian Bridge, Royal Victoria Royal Victoria Dock, high strength materials to emphasise wheels that turn against the rim. The London, London, 1995-1997 lightness, is a fully pre-stressed steel wheel's spindle is carried by an A-frame This design was inspired by the famous frame erected from prefabricated sitting on two 11-metre high concrete Pont Transbordeur in Marseilles elements to avoid site The plinths and anchored back at an angle of (1908) built by Ferdinand Amodin sections are connected across large 65 degrees to a tension foundation. and G. Leinekugel le Coq. Similar spigot pins and pulled together by Uniquely the wheel is supported from bridges were also built in Rouen external The deck is made just one side. The wheel sections were (1897), Brest (1898) and Nantes from steel plates welded to a mono- manufactured off site and came from a (1902). The Docklands setting was coque structure with a hardwood number of countries. The main steelwork also influential, with the adjacent high strip walking surface. section the came from Holland, the cables were mast dock crane towers and the box-girders between the suspension made in Italy, the spindle was cast by surrounding marine and boat architec- members are raised in the middle Skoda Works in Pilsen in the Czech The Royal Victoria Dock is used and protrude through the bridge deck. Republic and the passenger capsules as a national sailing and the The balustrade has cast aluminium came from France. The wheel was David 130-metre span footbridge had to be uprights with perforated stainless assembled horizontally above the Thames Julia & raised 15 metres above water level to steel infill panels. Access to the bridge on temporary platforms. After comple- British clear the masts of the sailing boats. deck is arranged by towers with stairs tion the wheel was pulled to its final Airways London Eye London, Because of its height, the deck, and lifts. In the next phase of position with a 90-metre long trussed supported by inverted cable stayed construction a glass passenger gondola crane jib over two consecutive weekends. Fink truss with plate girder panel will be added which will cross the The capsules were then fitted to the rim, beams, was enclosed in streamlined dock in a parabolic curve suspended In action the wheel takes 30 minutes to profile to reduce wind turbulence for from a track on the underside of the complete a full revolution and provides pedestrians and sailing dinghies below. bridge deck. visitors with stunning views of</p><p>William Henry Destrick Fred N. Dorton Raleigh Below: Eero Fred N. David S. Hockey Rink New Haven, Above: Wilkinson Wilkinson Eyre, Whitby, Bird & designed to the limits of technical feasi- And there were others Polish-born architect M Whitby Bird & Partners, Challenge of Materials bility. The bridge deck consists of 828 One cannot resist the temptation (1910-1950) and William Challenge of Materials Science Footbridge, Science Museum, glass strips in a stainless steel frame. to mention a number of structural Deitrick designed J.S. London, London, 1997 The deck is suspended on 186 one- designers who should be included in Raleigh, North Carolina (1 Wilkinson Eyre built a number of inter- millimetre diameter stainless steel this survey even if only very with Fred N. This esting innovative structures, mainly cables, which are connected to stress Norwegian-American engineer Fred two intersecting reinforced bridges. Perhaps the most challenging is gauges incorporating acoustic devices N. Severud (1899-1990) designed the arches inclined at 20 degre the interactive sculptural structure, and lighting systems by the artist Ron reinforced concrete arch and steel cable horizontal supporting a net which uses well-known materials but in Geesin. Pedestrians crossing the bridge net roof of David S. Ingalls Hockey sets of cables, one curving a novel application. This footbridge affect the tension of the supporting Rink, New Haven (1953-1959), with to the sides of the arche demonstrates the structural capabilities cables and trigger sounds, lights and TV Eero Sarrinen. curving down at right angle of glass and steel and exploits their monitor displays with images of people. Italian engineer Riccardo Morandi saddle surface set in tensio load-bearing capacities. The footbridge This bridge design brings people into (1902-1989) conceived the Lake weight of the arches. The ca is minimal in the extreme, using the interactive contact with new structural Maracaibo Bridge with reinforced was covered by plastic plate least amount of materials necessary ideas and engineering and gains their concrete cantilevered spans supported by Hungarian-born engineer demonstrating their capabilities and is immediate response. cables in Zulia, Venezuela (1957-1962). Weidlinger (1914-1999) p</p><p>93 INSPIRATION FUTURE 92 ARCHITECTS ENGINEERS = STRUCTURES Inspiration for the future For new ideas in architectural and structural building design, inspiration should be sought in nature, in tensegrity structures, in four-dimensional in fractals, in complex polyhedra, in deployable structures of complete factory pre-assembly - collapsible for transport and opened up on site - as well as in the latest innovative technology of new materials of spacecraft, aircraft and automobiles where maximum performance is achieved with minimum amounts of materials and energy, Light- Left: Raymond & ness in buildings will have to be the L Paul prime objective. New materials have Reader's Digest Office Building always heralded new structure and Tokyo, 1949-51 Riccardo Above: Lake Maracaibo Freeman Fox and Bridge, Partners (now Hyder Humber Bridge, Hull, 1969-81 Reader's Digest Office Building Cambridge, Massachusetts Swiss engineer Heinz Isler (1926-) Heinz BF (1949-1951). Its innovative, (1960-1963). used three point-supported prestressed Petrol balanced T-frame reinforced British engineer Bernard Wex concrete shells at BP Petrol Station at 1968 cantilever structure was (1922-1990) of Freeman, Fox and Deitingen (1968). Another Swiss engineer, in response to the client's Partners designed the continuously Christian Menn (1927-), proposed the to have uninterrupted welded, semi-monocoque, streamlined 678-metre Ganter Bridge with prestressed ger placed a single line of trapezoidal hollow box stiffening concrete hollow box deck supported by columns with an 8-metre girder road deck of Humber Bridge cable stays embedded in triangular ered floor either side with a row in Hull Although concrete walls in Eisten (1976-1980). tubes as props for the floor the Humber design was based on the Pakistani-born engineer Fazlur Khan his building was designed with previous box-girder decks for the (1929-1982) designed the externally Antonin Raymond and Severn (1966) and Bosporus bridges braced 100-storey steel tube, John v L. Weidlinger was also (1973), also by Freeman Fox and Hancock Center, Chicago (1965-1970), neer for Le Corbusier's Carpenter Partners, it became the culmination of with Bruce Graham of Skidmore, for the Visual Arts, the previous projects. Owings & Merrill,</p><p>94 ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS - STRUCTURES 95 INSPIRATION FOR THE FUTURE architecture. Future design and Left: construction must lie in environmentally friendly composite materials. Metal alloys such as nickel-titanium can change form as directed. Superfibres, such as carbon and aramid fibres, provide greater stiffness, strength, flexi- bility and economy, coping with higher tensile and compressive stresses achieved with the least amount of mass. Techno-fabrics can incorporate micro- encapsulated phase change material for improved thermal insulation. Self- repairing building materials (a principle demonstrated in self-sealing fuel tanks tried in Second World War aircraft where a layered construction with the middle layer made out of crude rubber that dissolved, swelled and sealed the hole when the tank was pierced) could become very They would be an ideal material for roof coverings, exter- nal cladding or structural elements. Traditional materials could be This page: Christian Ganter</p><p>96 ARCHITECTS + ENGINEERS - STRUCTURES Opposite: Arata Left & below: the grows, Convention Nara opens and takes to the Deployable air to start over again. structural Could structure began system incorporating a by man emulate this temporary amazing process? mechanism by Kawaguchi great advance into Below left: Spider's the future reinvented. Translucent concrete made out of crushed glass aggregate, plastic binder and plastic reinforcement would provide interesting design stimulation. Molecular technology - nanotechnology - could become the generator of new building materials and the forcefully effort, greatest Inspiration everything continues nature effects of but the faultlessly. from by with are to manufacturing nature, created consideration, beauty, Can where with least Nature does not mankind emulate materials same strength, economy and flexibility while consuming least energy, which could be applied to construction of objects and buildings? The prime catalyst will be the architect-engineer with an integrated view of structure and material behav- with the intuition to entice beauty into the world.</p>
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