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Unit VIII: Post World War II PresidentsDomestic and ForeignPolicy

~1945- 1992~

A Meridian

APUSH Study Guide by Staff:John Ho, Jeff Gu, Jason Liu, Tim Qi,Amy Young, and Willy Zhang

Harry S. Truman (1945-1952) Domestic Agenda:

The Fair DealFederal HousingAdministration

After WWII, the FHA offered insured housing mortgages and lowinterests on30 year loans. This increased interest in buyingSingle-family homes andstarted the growth of the suburbaniteclass.

Brannan Plan Provided federal support for farm income whilestill allowing farm productprices to be controlled by the openmarket. This ensured farm productionwhile still keeping acompetitive market.

Desegregation of

the Military

In 1948, Truman issued an order to organize the militaryregardless of race.

In response, Southern democrats rejected Truman and sponsored J.StromThurmond for the next Presidential candidate.

Repeal Taft-HartleyAct

1947. Truman vetoes the bill but the House of Representativesrepealed theveto and enacted it. The Taft-Hartley Act limitedworkers by reducing unionpowers and forcing union leaders to takepledges of loyalty to state.

Legislation Defeated: 1) National Health Plan, 2) Federal SchoolAid, 3) Civil rightslegislation

Foreign Policy:Trumans Foreign Policy

Issue Action DescriptionTruman Doctrine Promised monetary &military aid to any country that is

perceived to be threatened by the USSR.

Marshall Plan Joint plan to rebuild and recover the Europeannations afterWWII. Most of the aid was given to the moredevelopedcapitalist countries. The now 3rd world countries wereforthe most part left out of the plan.

EuropeanContainment

Berlin Airlift USSR controlled East Germany and splits with theWesternEurope, cutting of Berlin from the rest of Europe. USbomberssent much needed supplies to Berlin on the east

Copyright 2006 (April 22th) All rights reserved. APUSH StudyGuide v2.2 by Meridian Notes. Do not distribute orreproduce withoutreplicating this copyright.

1945 1952 1960 1963 1968 1974 1976 1980 1988 1992

Post World War II Presidential Timeline

Dwight D.

EisenhowerHarry S.Truman

John F.Kennedy

Lyndon B.Johnson

RichardM. Nixon

GeraldFord

JimmyCarter

RonaldReagan

GeorgeH.W.

Bush*Not to chronological scale

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side of the Iron Curtain.NATO (NorthAtlanticTreatyOrganization)

An attack on one is an attack on all. Created to counterthepossible attacks from communist USSR. U.S. enters thefirstentangling alliance since the alliance with Franceduring theAmerican Revolution.

VandenbergResolution

The resolution to create NATO. It was formed out of thefear thatthe USSR would try to change countries into

communist regimes, one at a time.Loss of China Democratic JiangJieshi looses to Communist Mao Zedong.Jiang Jieshi flees to theisland of Formosa (Taiwan). Manycriticize America for not givingenough support to China.

Acheson PerimeterSpeech

Declares Japan, Okinawa, Philippines, and Aleutians insidetheperimeter of American defense. America pledges todefend thesestates from communist rule. It excluded S.Korea.

AsianContainment

Korean Conflict N. Korea, with the help of communist China,cross the 38thparallel surging into S. Korea. A DMZ is set up alongbordersbefore the war.

Latin AmericaContainment

Organization ofAmerican States

Creates a collective security alliance of Latin Americanstatesin order to protect Latin America from communist

intrusions.Middle East Israel Recognized by U.S. as anindependent country. This angersArab and complicates relations withfuture oil monopolynations.

Containment: Policy proposed by advisor George Kennan; it becamethe primary foreignpolicy strategy against the U.S.S.R. during theTruman administration. The idea was todefeat the Soviets bypreventing expansion of territory or influence, eventually forcingitto stagnate.

Dwight D. Eisenhower (1952-1960) Domestic Agenda:

Eisenhowers Domestic AgendaDixon-Yates

Controversy

Encouraged the privately owned Dixon-Yates company to build apower

plant to compete with the TVAIncreased SocialSecurityBenefits

Despite general dislike for New Deal programs, Eisenhowerpermanentlystitched many New Deal programs into American society,knowing that ifSocial Security were abolished by a party, thatparty would die out

Department ofHealth, Education,and Welfare

Known as HEW, this department governed from 1953-1979 and latersplitinto Department of Education and Department of Health andHumanServices.

Interstate HighwayAct of 1956

Set aside $27 billion to build 42,000 miles of road; createdcountlessconstruction jobs and aided to suburbanization of America.Also expandedauto and related industries, robbed railroads ofbusiness.

National DefenseEducation Act of1958

Also known as NDEA; authorized $887 million in government loansto collegestudents and grants for the improvement of teaching thesciences andlanguages. It benefited both public and privateschools.

Revision of the Taft-Hartley Act Labor underwent house cleaningin 1959 due to recurrent strikes incritical industries and scandalsin upper management of unionsLandrum-Griffin Actof 1959

designed to bring labor leaders to book for financialshenanigans and toprevent bullying tactics; also prohibitedsecondary boycotts and certainkinds of picketing.

Lower PriceSubsidies forFarmers

Secretary of Agriculture Ezra Taft Benson tried to deal withcosts of farmprice subsidies; attempted to restore free marketconditions, but heended up spending the more money than anyprevious secretary.

Balancing theBudget

Important to Eisenhower, yet he only achieved this three timesin eightyears. Ironically, he had the biggest peacetime deficitthus far in American

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history due to Strategic Air Command, farm supports, etc.

Foreign Policy:Eisenhowers Foreign Policy

Issue Action DescriptionNATO, SEATO, OAS Collective securityphilosophy led to the creation of several

alliances in order to prevent the spread ofCommunism.Brinksmanshipphilosophy

Policy where a dangerous situation is pushed to the brinkofdisaster in order to force the opposition to makeconcessions.Used in Korea, where Eisenhower threatenedto nuke the North if theydid not end the war.

Massive retaliationtheory

Adopted in Eisenhowers administration; created an airfleet ofbombers called the Strategic Air Command (SAC).

Influence of

John FosterDulles

Domino theory A policy theory that speculated if one land in aregion cameunder the influence of Communists, then more wouldfollowin a domino effect. Used to justify the Vietnam War.

Relations WithEurope

Suez Canal Crisis Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal (ownedmostly by Britishand French stockholders) when U.S. refuses to lendfunds.French and British stage a joint assault on Egypt in late

1956; US refused to provide France and GB with needed oil.WarsawPact Signed 1955, the same year Germany joined NATO, between

Soviet Union and Eastern European countries to counterNATO.

Poland and EastGermany in 1953

Became buffer states for Soviets. In 1953, an uprising inEastGermany was sparked by worker strikes, which soon ledto politicaldemands. Soviet eventually troops crushed thiswith tanks.

Hungarian Revoltof 1956

Hungarian freedom fighters appealed to the US for help,butSoviet tanks overpowered them. U.S. alteredimmigration laws to letrefugees in.

Open Skies Policy Eisenhower called for open skies over bothSoviet Unionand US to prevent either side from miscalculatingthe

others military intentions. It was rejected by Khrushchev.

USSR and theEastern Bloc

U-2 Incident An American U-2 spy plane was shot down over Russiain1960. Eisenhower took full responsibility and all hopes of athawwith the Soviet Union were lost.

End of KoreanConflict

Eisenhower tried for peace by flying to Korea for a three-dayvisit in December 1952; an armistice was signed onlyafterEisenhower threatened to use atomic weapons

Asia

Treaty withTaiwan

Formosa Resolution passed in January 1955; Eisenhowerpromised toprotect Taiwan against invasion of Chinesecommunists.

Cuba Fidel Castro led rebellion in Cuba that overthrewdictatorFulgencio Batista and seized American property.Washingtonbroke diplomatic relations early 1961. This would leadto

the eventual formation of the OAS

Latin America

Nixons Visit toVenezuela

Nixon visited Venezuela, only to be attacked. At the time,USsupported the repressive dictator Marcos Perez Jimenez.As aprecaution, US marines were sent to military bases intheCaribbean.

John F. Kennedy (1960-1963) Domestic Agenda

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The New Frontier: Kennedys ambitious domestic program thatpromised medical care,federal funding of education, governmentintervention in the economy, and the end ofracialdiscrimination.

The New FrontierIssue Action Description

Minimum wageincrease Kennedy increases the minimum wage to curbpovertyin the U.S.

Federal housing An attempt to stimulate the economy, theactincreased government spending by funding housingprojects.

Department ofUrban Affairs

The proposed department would advise the presidenton urbanissues. It was defeated by Congress.

Welfare

Medicare Kennedy proposed medical insurance for the elderly,butwas stalled by Congress. It was later incorporatedin Johnsons GreatSociety.

Education Federal Funding Kennedy proposed to increase federalfunding ofeducational institutions (teacher salariesandconstruction grants). The bill was stalled by Congress

and did not pass until after his death.Price Ceiling Theadministration negotiated a price agreement with

U.S. Steel, hoping to curb inflation by preventingpriceincreases.

Economic Regulation

Tax cuts Taxes were reduced after his death with the intentionofstimulating the economy by placing more funds intoprivate hands.His policies were predominantlyKeynesian.

Desegregation At the University of Mississippi, Kennedyorderedtroops to escort black students to their classes.

Civil Rights Actof 1964

Passed under Johnson after Kennedys death (seeJohnson GreatSociety).

Civil Rights

Presidents

Commission onthe Status ofWomen

Kennedy creates the commission by executive order as

a part of the anti-communism movement. It wouldadvise thepresident on issues regarding the equalityof women.

9 Accomplishments: The program did not achieve many of itsgoals, mostly stalled byKennedys assassination and a conservativeCongress. It did, however, establish manyof the ideas that wereincorporated into later programs, such as JohnsonsGreatSociety.

Foreign Policy:Kennedys Foreign Policy

Event Date DescriptionPeace Corps 1961 Organization proposed byKennedy, intended to curb

Communism by sending volunteers into underdeveloped

countries and teaching them American skills.Bay of Pigs Invasion1961 The CIA-organized invasion of Cuba by exiles failed partly asa

result of Kennedys refusal to send air support. Theactionspushed Cuba further into the Soviet camp.

Berlin Wall 1961 Soviets construct the Berlin Wall to preventthe populationdrain towards the West in response to Kennedysrefusal tosurrender West Berlin.

Laotian Civil War 1962 Despite funds poured into the region,Laos underwent a civilwar with the threat of becoming communist.The U.S.considered sending troops, but ultimately the U.N. imposeda

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peace on the country.

Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 When U.S. spy planes revealed Sovietnuclear missiles in Cuba,Kennedy responds by instituting a navalblockade. Krushcheveventually agreed to pull out the missilesprovided that theU.S. dismantles theirs in Turkey.9 Test BanTreaty: The multination treaty banned testing of

nuclear weapons in the atmosphere.

9 Alliance for Progress: Aimed to establish economiccooperationbetween U.S. and Latin America and counterthe Cuban threat.

Vietnam War 1962 Kennedy continued to escalate troops inVietnam, sendingincreasing numbers of military advisors.

Space Race 1961-1963

Kennedy advocated greater efforts to lead the space raceandclose the gap between the U.S. and the Soviets. He proposedtheApollo Program and requested several joint ventures withtheSoviets.

9 Flexible Response: As massive retaliation proved too rigid,Kennedy adoptedflexible response which incorporated Special Forcesto respond to the exact crisis(such as Green Berets).

Lyndon B. Johnson (1963-1968) Domestic Agenda:

The Great Society: Series of programs loosely modeled afterRoosevelts New Deal aimedat reducing poverty and ending racialinjustice. It adopted many of Kennedys NewFrontier plans.

The Great SocietyAct Date Description

Water and Air QualityActs

1963 Congress passed a series of acts aimed at reducing smogandpollution in general as well as preserving pure water.

Economic OpportunityAct

1964 Central part of Johnsons War on Poverty. Created theOfficeof Economic Opportunity and included:9 Project Head Start:Provided educational services to

underprivileged children.

9 Job Corps: Provided vocational training to unemployedyoungpeople. Offered programs to allow underprivilegedto obtain a job orenter college.

Elementary andSecondary EducationAct

1965 Legislation that authorized funding of various primaryandsecondary educational programs to ensure thatunderprivilegedstudents have access to education.

Medicare 1965 Amended Social Security Legislation to providedmedicalinsurance to the elderly and disabled.

Civil Rights Act of 1965 1965 The landmark act outlaweddiscrimination in the federalgovernment and public facilities. Itgave the government moreauthority to enforce desegregation.

Immigration andNationality Act

1965 Abolished the national origin quota, doubling the amountofimmigrants allowed to enter annually. It also gave provisions

for relatives and other family members.National EndowmentsforArts andHumanities

1965 Federal program designed to improve American culturebyoffering monetary grants to programs with artistic merit.

Department of Housingand UrbanDevelopment (HUD)

1965 Cabinet department created to develop and enforce policiesonhousing and cities in development.

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The Great Society Big Four Legislation:

Great SocietyEducation

Medical Care

ImmigrationReform

Voting RightsBill

Foreign Policy:Johnsons Foreign Policy

Event DescriptionDomino Theory See Eisenhowers ForeignPolicyContainment See Truman Foreign policyGulf of TonkinIncident/Resolution

A pair North Vietnamese gunboat allegedly attacked two U.S.destroyers inthe neutral Gulf of Tonkin. Johnson used this as theprimary reason to enterwar against North Vietnam.

Growing Anti-WarMovement

Anti-war movements sprouted from the country especially incolleges as thewar dragged on. Many of these protests led to tragicendings as they wereshot by police.

Tet Offensive A series of operational offense launched by theNVA that started on Tet, theVietnamese lunar New Year whichtargeted specifically to take down thesouthern capital ofSaigon.

Vietnam Policies

Issue Action DescriptionEscalation Johnson escalated the VietnamWar by dumping hugeamount of money and soldiers in war. However,theoutcome yielded no positive result as the end of war wasstillnot in sight.

Policies in LateVietnam War

Pacification In order to prevent local support of the Viet Cong,U.S.soldiers would win hearts and minds of civilians.

De-escalation After numerous protests in U.S., Johnson finallyto stopsending in troops into this black hole and slowlywithdrawthem from Vietnam. However, heavy bombing continued.

Policies inEarly/MidVietnam War

Vietnamization U.S. operation to slowly turn the war into theSouthernVietnameses hands. U.S. wishes to eventually withdrawfromthe war and have the Southern Vietnamese fight their

own war.

Richard M. Nixon (1968-1974) Domestic Agenda:

Economic Policy

Policy DescriptionDevaluation of the dollar Since paper currencycan no longer be converted into gold, its

values decreased dramatically.End of gold standard After thewage freeze, Nixon suspended the gold standard. This was

a central point of the Bretton Woods system, allowing its valueto

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float in world markets.Wage/price/dividend/rentfreeze

Nixon feared that taking off the gold standard, the nationwouldplunge into a huge inflation. So he issued a 90 day wagefreeze.

War Powers Act: Passed in November 1973. This act required thepresident to report allorders for U.S. troops in foreign regionswithin 48 hours.

Citizens Demands

Policy DescriptionEnvironmentalGroups

Nixon formed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) andtheOccupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) along withsomeother environmental laws.

Watergate ScandalPolicy Description

Break-in The main group of conspirators called the WatergateSeven planned tosecretly record the Democrats conferences at ahotel.

Cover-up Nixon refused to admit his participation in theWatergate Scandal andrefused to hand over the tapes to Congress

Nixons Resignation In July 1974, The Supreme Court forced Nixonto give the tapes to Congress.When the House was preparing theirfirst article of impeachment, Nixon

handed over the rest of the tapes, and resigned a few days laterto keep hisincome privilege as president.

Foreign Policy:Nixons Foreign Policy

Issue Action DescriptionDtente When threatened by a possibleU.S.-China alliance, the

U.S.S.R. agreed to several deals. The formation of the ABMTreatyand SALT would usher in a period a relaxed tensionbetween U.S.S.R.and U.S.

Europe

SALT I Treaty The first treaty between U.S. and U.S.S.R. sincethe start ofthe Cold War. It froze or dismantled the ballisticmissilesarsenals on both sides. This treaty is the first sign ofDtente

and the future thawing of the Cold War.Ending ofVietnam War

Nixons Vietnamization eventually evacuated almost all ofthe U.S.troops from Southeast Asia. However, U.S. stillprovided supply andmoney through the Nixon Doctrine andsecretly bombed Cambodia andVietnam.

Asia

Recognition ofChina

U.S. opened diplomatic relations with China. After Chinajoinedthe U.N in 1971, Nixon visited China and the U.S. andopeneddiplomatic relations. Full recognition did not comeuntil 1979

The 1973 War When U.S. backed Israel in the war against Egyptand Syria,OPEC nations put an embargo that limited oil exports toU.S.and caused a crisis through the nation through thisoilshortage

Middle East

ShuttleDiplomacy

A policy used when a third party negotiates between twocountriesthat would not directly talk to each other.Kissinger exercised thiskind of diplomacy in the Middle Eastbetween Israel and other OPECnations.

Latin America Chile and theoverthrowSalvadorAllende

After Senator Allende became president of Chile, thenationsuffered from severe inflation. A military group invadedthepresidents palace, establishing a military governmentinChile.

Gerald Ford (1976-1980)

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Domestic Agenda:Fords Domestic Agenda

Nixon Pardon President Ford grants Nixon a pardon for hisactions during presidencyRunaway Inflation At the time inflationwas around 7%,high enough to discourage investment

and push capital overseas and into government bonds.RecessionThe economic focus began to change as the country sank into amild

recession, and in March 1975, Ford and Congress signed into lawincome tax

rebates to boost the economy.Campaign FinanceLaw of 1974

The Federal Election Campaign Act was amended to specificallysanction theformation of "political committees", enabling politicalgroups (such as tradeunions) to pool their dollars and give to thecandidates of their choice.

Foreign Policy:Fords Foreign Policy

Location Date DescriptionEurope 1975 Helsinki Accords: Series ofa*greements signed between several

nations, including the U.S. and Soviet Union. The talkswereaimed at easing tensions in the Eastern bloc by convincingtheSoviets to grant more human rights.

Asia 1975 9 Vietnam: Withdrawal from the South and its fall totheNorthern invasion.

9 Mayaquez Incident: The Cambodian Navy seized anAmericanmerchant ship, SS Mayaguez, in internationalwaters off Cambodia'scoast.

Jimmy Carter (1976-1980) Domestic Agenda:

Carters Domestic AgendaIssue Action Description

Department ofEducation

Carter's government reorganization efforts separatedtheDepartment of Health, Education and Welfare(HEW) into separateagencies (Welfare was renamedHuman Services).

Reform

GovernmentReorganization

The Watergate scandal still fresh, Carter based hiscampaignplatform on government reorganization.

Stagflation Inflation compounded by unemployment,unprecedentedin American economy. Inflation: Caused by continued high levelsof

government spending and the rising price ofimported oil imposedby OPEC.

Economy

Limited EnergyPolicy

Carter proposed legislation imposing fuel efficiencyand fuelconservation, but his program failed againstpublic apathy.

Foreign Policy:Carters Foreign Policy

Event Date DescriptionSALT II Treaty 1979 Negotiations betweenthe United States and the Soviet Union

on limiting nuclear arsenals. The treaty failed to passCongress.Recognition of China 1979 The Peoples Republic of Chinawas formally recognized,

resuming full diplomatic relations. Congress passed theTaiwanRelations Act, unofficially recognizing Taiwan.

Iran Hostage Crisis 1979-1981

Iran undergoes a civil war and a radical government emerges.Amob storms the U.S. embassy and holds the occupants hostagefor 444days.

Camp David Accords 1978 Carter brokered a peace treaty betweenthe states of Israel

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and Egypt after inviting them to Camp David.Panama Canal 1977Control of the Panama Canal was to be handed over to the

Panamanians by the year 2000. The treaty received heavycriticismin the United States for giving away the canal.

Ronald Reagan (1980-1988) Domestic Agenda:

Reagans Domestic AgendaLabor Unions- TheAirTrafficControllers

In the summer of 1981, Reagan fired a majority of federal airtrafficcontrollers (members of the PATCO union) when they went onan illegalstrike. It signaled that it was acceptable for businessesto play hardball withunions, some of which began to rapidlyshrink.

Deregulation ofIndustry

9 Federal requirements that set maximum interest rates onsavingsaccounts were phased out. Eliminated the advantagepreviously held bysavings banks.

9 Eliminated the distinction between commercial and savingsbanks.Drug War An initiative undertaken by the United States tocarry out an "all-out

offensive" (as President Nixon described it) against theprohibited use ofcertain legally controlled drugs.

Reaganomics Reagans economic policy of supply-side economics,noted for a 25% cut in

the income tax and increased military spending. He continuedderegulationof business and temporarily suspended Social Securityprograms. Thepolicies cause an enormous rise in national debt.

1987 Stock MarketCrash

The Reagan administration looked for ways to formalize responsestoeconomy threatening market movers after the crash. He establishedtheWorking Group on Financial Markets to study the causes andadvise futurepolicies.

Robert Borknomination to theSupreme Court

Nominated by Reagan to the Supreme Court in 1987, Bork wasrejected bySenate. Senate debated over his nomination concerned byhis strongopposition by civil and women's rights groups.

Foreign Policy:Reagans Foreign Policy

Issue Action DescriptionStrategicDefenseInitiative (SDI)

Reagan advocated the defensive measure "Star Wars", aspace-basedmissile shield that would end "mutually assureddestruction".Although considered impossible by critics, theproject forced theSoviet Union further into an arms race,straining its already weakeconomy.

USSR thaw Mikhail S. Gorbachev becomes the premier of the USSRinMarch 1985 introducing a period of thaw where the nationundertooka series of democratic reforms.

Europe

Intermediate-Range NuclearForces (INF)Treaty

The treaty was an agreement between the United States andtheSoviet Union which eliminated nuclear andconventionalground-launched ballistic missiles. It also allowedboth sidesto inspect each others military installations.

Asia Trade withJapan Reagan advocated protectionism againstJapanesecompetition, imposing large tariffs on imported goods.

Arms forhostagescontroversy

The Reagan Administration, using an Israeli supply line,begansupplying U.S.-made missiles and weapons parts toIran in exchangefor Iran's aid in freeing Americans heldhostage in Lebanon in1985

Middle East

Lebanon U.S. involvement in Lebanon followed a limited-termUnitedNations mandate for a multinational force. U.S. forceswerewithdrawn shortly after the October 23, 1983 bombing ofabarracks in which 241 Marines were killed.

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Libya United States-Libyan tensions erupted in April 1986whenLibyan agents planted a bomb in a Berlin nightclub.Theexplosion killed American servicemen. In retaliation, theUnitedStates launched air strikes on Tripoli and Benghazi.

Iran-ContraAffair

A political scandal where President RonaldReagan'sadministration sold arms to Iran, and used proceedstoillegally fund the Contras, a right wing guerrilla groupinNicaragua.

Debt To receive their new loans from the U.S., debtor nationsinLatin America had to agree to reduce government programs,slashinvestments, and run trade surpluses to repay theinterest. Itfueled bad relations between the U.S. and LatinAmerican.

Latin America

Response tocommie threat

The Reagan administration increased military fundingforanti-communist dictatorships throughout Latin America, andhasbeen widely accused of ordering the assassination ofseveral LatinAmerican presidents and prime ministers.

George H. W. Bush (1988-1992) Domestic Agenda:

Bushs Domestic AgendaRead My LipsNoNew Taxes

A famous pledge made by George H. W. Bush in his acceptancespeech. Theno tax pledge had been a consistent part of Bush's 1988election platform.He failed to keep the promise.

Education Emphasized the desegregation and importance of publiceducation.

Foreign Policy:Bushs Foreign Policy

Issue Action DescriptionFall of BerlinWall

Ended the Cold War division of Germany. Bush announcedthat theworld needed a new world order to replace thesuperpower rivalry ofthe Cold War.

Europe

Changing role of

NATO

The end of the Cold War caused a strategic re-evaluation of

NATO's purpose, nature, and tasks. NATO continues toexpand intoEastern EuropeEuropeanCommunity(1992)

Originally founded on March 25, 1957 under the Treaty ofRome asthe European Economic Community. It eventuallybecame the first ofthree pillars of the European Union.

Asia

Trade deficit Previous American monopolies, such as theautomobileindustry, rapidly lost ground to foreign competitors,creatingan enormous trade deficit.

OperationDesert Storm

A lightning air war against Iraq in response to theKuwaitinvasion. It was led by the U.N. and U.S. forces.

Middle East

Israel U.S. supported Israel in the Middle Eastconflict.Invasion ofPanama

In December 1989, Bush sent troops to Panama to assistmilitaryforces in a coup against Panamanian drug lord

President Manuel Noriega.El Salvador CivilWar

Predominantly fought between the Salvadoran militarydictatorshipand a unified leftist opposition guerrillamovement known as theFarabundo Mart National LiberationFront (FMLN) between 1980 and1992.

Latin America

Nicaragua The Bush administration used US leverage toreturnNicaragua to the free-market path. US aid was tied directlytomeeting the conditions of an unusually strict structuraladjustmentplan.